Engineering topics
Publications and source records attributed to James, Philip B..
This grant supported various data analysis projects involving calibration and analysis of observations of the Martian polar caps and of condensate and dust clouds by Mars Global Surveyor.
Images of Mars obtained using the Planetary Camera on the Hubble Space Telescope during 1990 and 1991 are described and analyzed. Multispectral images of Mars record the martian season between L(sub s) = 348 deg and 60 deg corresponding to late winter and spring in the northern hemisphere. The wavelengths of these observations varied between 230 nm in the ultraviolet and 890 nm in the near infrared. We use these images to discuss atmospheric and polar phenomena, to constrain the aerosols and ozone in the martian atmosphere, and to compare surface albedo features within this data set as well as with previous observations. Two methods are used to constrain the opacity of the martian atmosphere: comparisons of ultraviolet images with atmospheric scattering models and examination of contrast changes of surface features observed at visible wavelengths. Our observations are consistent with a Mars which was quite different from the planet when it was viewed by Viking; we estimate an upper limit of 0.1 for equatorial dust opacity near vernal equinox, compared to values of 0.4 to 0.5 measured in Chryse by Viking Lander 1. Later, at L(sub s) = 60 deg, and upper limit of 0.2 was found for dust in the southern hemisphere. Except for suggestions of local dust activity near the north polar cap in late spring, there was no visual evidence of dust storms on the planet. The Hartley band of ozone is within the F230W filter bandpass, and the 230W/336W ratio is therefore sensitive to ozone. High latitude ozone is observed at a concentration similar to that observed by Mariner 9; a seasonal dependence in ozone concentration was observed with concentration decreasing at northern arctic latitudes and increasing at southern midlatitudes as L(sub s) increases from 350 deg to 60 deg. Despite the difference in dust loading, the behavior of condensate clouds and the recession of the north polar cap are consistent with those observed during Viking years. Late winter images of the north polar region reveal an active north polar hood with a maximum (UV) opacity of about 0.25 near 50 deg latitude; the hood seems to have an annular form, with the central, polar regions having smaller opacity. Clouds observed in the northern hemisphere to the south of the hood boundary are suggestive of fronts similar to those observed during the Mariner 9 mission. A diurnal variation in the hood clouds which is (anti) correlated with the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere is noted. Images were deconvolved using the Richardson-Lucy iterative algorithm to remove the defocussing effects of the spherical aberration of the HST primary. Even when Mars subtended less than 5 arcsec, in May 1991, the images were scientifically useful and comparable to photographic images obtained at opposition. Although the data are subject to the solar pointing constraint for HST, the relatively slow movement of the allowed observation window, which is more than one half martian year, with respect to the martian seasons will permit us to address the question of major variations in the martian atmosphere.
The lack of a continuous record of Martian meteorology or of volatile cycles on Mars for extended periods of several Martian years seriously hinders efforts to understand the physics of the Martian atmosphere and surface system. The spacecraft observations are limited to only a few isolated time periods, and the Earth based record is limited by the relatively short periods surrounding oppositions when telescopic observations can yield useful data. To remedy this situation, the authors have embarked on a three year program of Mars observations using the Hubble Space Telescope (HST). Several scientific investigations are being carried out using the images, including: a study of the albedo variations; unit mapping of spectral reflectances; determination of optical depths due to aerosols and condensates; a study of the properties of condensate clouds and hoods; comparison of surface and atmospheric features; observation of size and shape of the polar caps; and investigation of surface atmospheric phenomena.
The paper divides the high points of telescopic observations of Mars into three time periods: historical, missions support (recent), and present. Particular attention is given to visual and photographic observations, with brief discussions of spectroscopic and polarization studies. Major topics of Martian phenomena included are albedo features, polar caps, dust storms, and white clouds. The interannual variability of the recessions of seasonal polar caps has been compared to dust storm activity, but this relationship remains uncertain. Only a very limited number of canals can be related to markings on the Viking images. The remainder are argued to be optical illusions created by observers pushing their perceived resolution beyond practical limits.
Results of Viking investigations relevant to the CO2 cycle on Mars are presented, and the extensive modeling efforts directed towards understanding this cycle and its couplings to the seasonal cycles of water and dust are reviewed. It is found that winter condensation is suppressed either because the solid CO2 deposits are inefficient radiators or because of the scattering effects of CO2 clouds. With regard to the qualitative difference between the spring regression curves and between the wind systems for the two seasonal caps, it is suggested that the greater amount of aerosols in the atmosphere during northern winter results in a greater proportion of atmospheric condensation there than in the south. The seasonal pressure curves obtained by the Viking Landers during four Martian years are remarkably similar. It is suggested that the CO2 cycle is not sensitive to atmospheric dust and the meteorological variations accompanying global storms or that some subtle cancellation between different mechanisms suppresses variations.
Hubble Space Telescope (HST) afforded the possibility of resolving features as small as 100 km on the Martian surface even when it is at the far point of its orbit. Therefore it is ideally suited for monitoring seasonal changes on the red planet. The objectives research include: the study of Martian dust storms; use of images obtained through different filters to study the spectral reflectance of regions on the Martian surface; use of ultraviolet images and spectra to measure the amount of ozone in the planet's atmosphere as a function of location of the planet; use of images to study changes in the albedo of the Mars surface; and use of Planetary Camera images to study Martian clouds and to measure the opacity of the atmosphere.
Photographs of Mars obtained during the 1986 opposition of the planet have been used to derive the regression curve for the south polar cap between Ls = 190 deg and Ls = 255 deg. The 1986 regression appears to have been unexceptional until after Ls = 230 deg, when it becomes retarded relative to the normal established by the 1971 and 1977 regressions. A study of the data as a function of the filter used suggests that circumpolar clouds were present in early spring, unlike the case in the 1977 recession.
A one-dimensional model for the seasonal cycle of water on Mars has been used to investigate the direction of the net annual transport of water on the planet and to study the possible role of water ice clouds, which are included as an independent phase in addition to ground ice and water vapor, in the cycle. The calculated seasonal and spatial patterns of occurrence of water ice clouds are qualitatively similar to the observed polar hoods, suggesting that these polar clouds are, in fact, an important component of water cycle. A residual dry ice in the south acts as a cold trap which, in the absence of sources other than the caps, will ultimately attract the water ice from the north cap; however, in the presence of a source of water in northern midlatitudes during spring, it is possible that the observed distribution of vapor and ice can be in a steady state even if a residual CO2 cap is a permanent feature of the system.
The Echus Chasma clouds of Mars, which are the first to be observed by spacecraft in the equatorial canyon region of the planet, extend the geographic and seasonal ranges in which dust stoms are known to occur. Viking camera observations of these clouds in red and violet filters are presently noted to imply their composition to be partly dust and partly condensate. Drainage winds, part of a diurnal wind system driven by thermal and elevation contrasts, are seen as a plausible interpretation of the observed phenomena.
Water exists in both vapor and solid phases in the Martian atmosphere. The polar hoods are shrouds of condensate clouds which obscure both polar regions at times during their respective fall and winter seasons. The hemispheric asymmetries in the polar hood clouds are reviewed and their significance to the seasonal water cycle is discussed. Comparisons of images acquired using short wavelength filters, which provide maximum cloud contrast, and long wavelength filters, which are sensitive to surface features including the surface cap, provide correlations between cloud formation and large scale planetary dynamics.
Published observational data on the seasonal recession of the south polar cap on Mars (covering the period 1903-1977) are compiled in tables and graphs and analyzed statistically. The basic data set (photographic observations obtained at Lowell Observatory) of Fischbacher et al. (1960) and James and Lumme (1982) and the reduction procedures described by Baum and Martin (1973) are employed, and Viking data from 1977 are used for comparison; the early onset (relative to the mean) of the 1956 recession is characterized in detail. A list of photographically documented large dust storms is provided, and it is suggested that in years with early spring storms, recession may be slower than in years without such storms.
Observational data on the late-winter/spring sublimation and recession of the north polar cap of Mars are analyzed statistically. Ground-based photographic data obtained by the International Planetary Patrol during the oppositions of 1975, 1978, and 1980 are compiled in tables and graphs, and Viking data from the 1977-1978 and 1980 recessions are included for comparison. The results indicate that the recession of the cap from its maximum extent (near 55 deg N) reaches a plateau during midspring. The end of this plateau is associated with (1) a sharp increase in circumpolar cloud cover (suggesting that the cap is the water source) and (2) a probable reversal of the northern-hemisphere meridional wind (as observed by Kahn, 1983).
Models used to study the changes in Martian climate must of necessity adequately describe the current volatile cycles. The focus is on mathematical modeling of current volatile cycles and modest extrapolation to past regimes. Water cycle, dust storms, polar variabilty, and north polar clouds data were compared to the model predictions.
Telescopic data on the twentieth century regressions of Mars' south polar cap were reexamined for evidence of interannual variability. Several regressions, particularly that of 1956, are found to differ significantly from the mean. The possibility of correlations with major dust storms is explored.