Engineering topics

Pollack, J. B.

Publications and source records attributed to Pollack, J. B..

At least 163 records · Page 9

NASA NTRS1979

Application of a coupled aerosol formation: Radiative transfer model to climatic studies of aerosols

A sophisticated one dimensional physical-chemical model of the formation and evolution of stratospheric aerosols was used to predict the size and number concentration of the stratospheric aerosols as functions of time and altitude following: a large volcanic eruption; increased addition of carbonyl sulfide (OCS) or sulfur dioxide (SO2) to the troposphere; increased supersonic aircraft (SST) flights in the stratosphere; and, large numbers of space shuttle (SS) flights through the stratosphere. A radiative-convective one dimensional climate sensitivity study, using the results of the aerosol formation model, was performed to assess the ground level climatic significance of these perturbations to the stratospheric aerosol layer. Volcanic eruptions and large OCS or SO2 increases could cause significant climatic changes. Currently projected SS launches and moderate fleets of SST's are unlikely to upset the stratospheric aerosol layer enough to significantly impact climate.

Toon, O. B.↗

NASA NTRS1978

Origin and evolution of the Saturn system: Observational consequences

A number of important cosmogonic questions concerning the Saturn system can be addressed with a Saturn-orbiter-dual-probe spacecraft mission. These questions include: The origin of the Saturn system; the source of Saturn's excess luminosity; the mechanism by which the irregular satellites were captured; the influence of Saturn's early luminosity on the composition of its regular satellites; and the origin of the rings. The first two topics can be studied by measurements made from an entry probe into Saturn's atmosphere, while the remaining issues can be investigated by measurements conducted from an orbiter. Background information is provided on these five questions describing the critical experiments needed to help resolve them.

Pollack, J. B.↗

NASA NTRS1978

Physical properties of aerosols in Titan's atmosphere as deduced from visible observations

Analysis of the absolute value of Titan's albedo and its variation with increasing phase angle has yielded constraints on the optical properties and average particle size of the aerosols responsible for the scattering of visible light. The real index of refraction of the scattering material lies within the range 1.5 approximately less than nr approximately less than 2.0 and the average particle size is somewhere between 0.2 micrometer and 0.4 micrometer. The amount of limb darkening produced by these models leads to an occultation radius of approximately 2700 km.

Rages, K.↗

NASA NTRS1978

Near-infrared spectra of the Galilean satellites - Observations and compositional implications

Reflectivity spectra of the trailing and leading sides of Io, Europa, Callisto, and Ganymede are analyzed which were obtained at an altitude of 41,000 ft from the Kuiper Airborne Observatory with circular variable filter-wheel spectrometers in the spectral region from 0.7 to 5.5 microns. The data are compared with laboratory spectrum and with synthetic spectra constructed on the basis of simple multiscattering theory. The 2.9-micron feature in Callisto's spectra is attributed primarily to bound water; the fractional amounts of water-ice cover on the trailing and leading sides of Ganymede and on the leading side of Europa are estimated. The bare-ground areas on Ganymede are shown to have reflectivity properties comparable to those of Callisto's surface in the studied spectral region, and the surfaces of both satellites are found to contain significant quantities of bound water. It is suggested that minor but significant amounts of ferrous-bearing material (either ferrous salts or alkali feldspars) can account for the 1.35-micron feature of Io.

Pollack, J. B.↗

NASA NTRS1978

Properties of the clouds of Venus, as inferred from airborne observations of its near-infrared reflectivity spectrum

The shape and absolute value of Venus' reflectivity spectrum is measured in the 1.2- to 4.0 micrometer spectral region with a circular variable filter wheel spectrometer having a spectral resolution of 1.5%. Comparing these spectra with synthetic spectra generated with a multiple-scattering computer code, a number of properties of the Venus clouds are inferred. Evidence is obtained indicating that the clouds are made of a water solution of sulfuric acid in their top unit optical depth, and that the clouds are made of this material down to an optical depth of at least 25. In addition, the acid concentration is 84 plus or minus 2% H2SO4 by weight in the top unit optical depth, the total optical depth of the clouds is 37.5 plus or minus 12.5, and the cross-sectional weighted mean particle radius lies between 0.5 and 1.4 micrometers in the top unit optical depth of the clouds. It is found that the average volume mixing ratio of H2SO4 and H2O contained in the cloud material both equal approximately 2 x 10 to the -6. Employing vapor pressure arguments, the acid concentration is shown to equal 84 plus or minus 6% at the cloud bottom and the water vapor mixing ratio beneath the clouds lies between 6 x 10 to the -4 and 10 to the -2.

Pollack, J. B.↗

NASA NTRS1978

Venus - The 17- to 38-micron spectrum

A far-IR emission spectrum of Venus covering the wavelength range from 17 to 38 microns is examined which was obtained on five nights at an altitude of 14 km with the 30-cm telescope of the NASA Lear Jet. The spectrum is found to be characterized by an overall continuum level with noticeable absorption shortward of 20 microns and longward of 30 microns as compared with a 245-K blackbody. The continuum level is taken as implying a continuous source of opacity in the Venusian atmosphere over the entire range from 17 to 38 microns with increased opacity shortward of 20 microns and longward of 30 microns. It is shown that a haze of sulfuric acid droplets can provide the necessary opacity and explain the observed depressions. A pressure level of roughly 200 mb is deduced for this spectrum.

Reed, R. A.↗

NASA NTRS1978

The rings of Saturn

Consideration is given to the development of theories concerning the rings of Saturn. Particular attention is given to ring structure, noting its thinness, the separations between rings, and observed variations in brightness. Data gathered via infrared, radio and radar techniques are described in terms of ring particle composition and size. Hypotheses about ring origin and evolution are outlined, including the tidal disruption model, calculations of Saturn's gravitational contraction history, grazing, and meteoroid bombardment. Prospects for future observations of Saturn's rings are reviewed, such as the variation in their radar reflectivity as a function of the tilt of the ring plane.

Pollack, J. B.↗

NASA NTRS1978

Saturn's rings: Particle composition and size distribution as constrained by microwave observations. I - Radar observations

The radar backscattering characteristics of compositional and structural models of Saturn's rings are calculated and compared with observations of the absolute value, wavelength dependence, and degree of depolarization of the rings' radar cross section (reflectivity). The doubling method is used to calculate reflectivities for systems that are many particles thick using optical depths derived from observations at visible wavelengths. If the rings are many particles thick, irregular centimeter- to meter-sized particles composed primarily of water ice attain sufficiently high albedos and scattering efficiencies to explain the radar observations. In that case, the wavelength independence of radar reflectivity implies the existence of a broad particle size distribution; a narrower size distribution is also a possibility. Particles of primarily silicate composition are ruled out by the radar observations. Purely metallic particles may not be ruled out on the basis of existing radar observations. A monolayer of very large ice 'particles' that exhibit multiple internal scattering may not yet be ruled out.

Cuzzi, J. N.↗

NASA NTRS1978

The composition of Phobos - Evidence for carbonaceous chondrite surface from spectral analysis

In connection with a need for more definitive information concerning the composition of Phobos in a study of its origin, an ultraviolet-visible-infrared reflectance spectrum of the Martian satellite was compiled from the Mariner 9 ultraviolet spectrometer, Viking lander imaging, and ground-based photometric data. The probable surface composition of Phobos was deduced by comparing the obtained spectrum with the spectra of asteroids of known composition. The considered data show that the reflectivity of Phobos is flat from 1100 to 400 nm but decreases sharply in the ultraviolet to about 1 percent at 212 nm. The reflectance spectrum is similar to the spectra of asteroids Ceres and Pallas which were found to have surface compositions similar to that of carbonaceous chondrites. It is concluded that the surface composition of Phobos is also similar to that of carbonaceous chondrites. The results of the investigation point to different modes of origin for Mars and Phobos.

Pang, K. D.↗

NASA NTRS1978

Multicolor observations of Phobos with the Viking lander cameras - Evidence for a carbonaceous chondritic composition

The reflectivity of Phobos has been determined in the spectral region from 0.4 to 1.1 micrometers from images taken with a Viking lander camera. The reflectivity curve is flat in this spectral interval and the geometric albedo equals 0.05 + or - 0.01. These results, together with Phobos's reflectivity spectrum in the ultraviolet, are compared with laboratory spectra of carbonaceous chondrites and basalts. The spectra of carbonaceous chondrites are consistent with the observations, whereas the basalt spectra are not. These findings raise the possibility that Phobos may be a captured object rather than a natural satellite of Mars.

Pollack, J. B.↗

NASA NTRS1978

Properties of dust in the Martian atmosphere and its effect on temperature structure

Recent spacecraft missions to Mars have made it possible to define a number of properties of dust particles in the Mars atmosphere and to determine the influence of these particles on the vertical temperature structure. The present study draws primarily upon analyses of data from the Viking Lander imaging experiment and from the IRIS experiment of the Mariner 9 Orbiter. These data are used in a one-dimensional radiative-convective model to obtain a first-order estimate of the atmospheric temperature profile, and these predictions are compared with relevant Viking observations.

Pollack, J. B.↗

NASA NTRS1978

Stratospheric aerosols and climatic change

Stratospht1ic sulfuric acid particles scatter and absorb sunlight and they scatter, absorb and emit terrestrial thermal radiation. These interactions play a role in the earth's radiation balance and therefore affect climate. The stratospheric aerosols are perturbed by volcanic injection of SO2 and ash, by aircraft injection of SO2, by rocket exhaust of Al2O3 and by tropospheric mixing of particles and pollutant SO2 and COS. In order to assess the effects of these perturbations on climate, the effects of the aerosols on the radiation balance must be understood and in order to understand the radiation effects the properties of the aerosols must be known. The discussion covers the aerosols' effect on the radiation balance. It is shown that the aerosol size distribution controls whether the aerosols will tend to warm or cool the earth's surface. Calculations of aerosol properties, including size distribution, for various perturbation sources are carried out on the basis of an aerosol model. Calculations are also presented of the climatic impact of perturbed aerosols due to volcanic eruptions and Space Shuttle flights.

Toon, O. B.↗

NASA NTRS1978

Scattering by non-spherical particles of size comparable to a wavelength - A new semi-empirical theory

Mie theory, which is generally used to describe the scattering behavior of particles at a certain wavelength, is only rigorously correct for spherical particles. Particles found as atmospheric constituents, with the exception of cloud droplets, are, however, decidedly nonspherical. An investigation is, therefore, conducted regarding the significant ways in which the scattering behavior of irregularly shaped particles differs from that of spheres. A systematic method is formulated for treating the real scalar scattering behavior. A description is presented of a new semiempirical theory based on simple physical principles and data obtained in laboratory measurements, which successfully reproduces the single scattering phase function for a wide range of particle shapes, sizes, and refractive indices.

Pollack, J. B.↗

NASA NTRS1978

Remote sensing of aerosols in the Martian atmosphere - Implications for terrestrial studies

Data provided by recent spacecraft missions to Mars include determinations of the properties and effects of aerosols suspended in the Martian atmosphere. Comparison of alternative procedures used to remotely sense the aerosol properties as well as analyses of these methodologies may have relevance for analogous procedures being developed to study terrestrial aerosols with satellite-borne sensors. In addition, Martian aerosols appear to have played a role in climate changes that may have terrestrial counterparts. Of particular concern are observations made from the Mariner 9 orbiter spacecraft, which studied Mars during 1971 and 1972, and the Viking orbiter and lander spacecraft, which conducted measurements commencing in the middle of 1976 and continuing through the present. Two global dust storms were observed from their commencement to their demise.

Pollack, J. B.↗

NASA NTRS1978

Possible effects of solar UV variations on ozone and climate

A one-dimensional photochemical model was used to estimate the consequences of 27-day, 11-year, 22-year, and several-hundred-year variations of ultraviolet solar radiation on the concentration of ozone and nitrogen dioxide, and a one-dimensional radiative-convective equilibrium model was used to assess the joint effect of the radiation and concentration variations on the global temperature structure. For the several-hundred-year variations, the ozone column density increases by about 17.5% from minimum to maximum solar UV flux. For the 11-year period the ozone column density fluctuates by only about 7%, the lack of a full response being due to the time required for vertical motions to redistribute ozone from the altitudes of maximum production to those of maximum steady-state value. The 22-year period shows a full response, which the density varies by less than a percent for the 27-day period. Climatic consequences of these results are briefly discussed.

Pollack, J. B.↗

NASA NTRS1977

Dust storms on Mars: Considerations and simulations

Aeolian processes are important in modifying the surface of Mars at present, and appear to have been significant in the geological past. Aeolian activity includes local and global dust storms, the formation of erosional features such as yardangs and depositional features such as sand dunes, and the erosion of rock and soil. As a means of understanding aeolian processes on Mars, an investigation is in progress that includes laboratory simulations, field studies of earth analogs, and interpretation of spacecraft data. This report describes the Martian Surface Wind Tunnel, an experimental facility established at NASA-Ames Research Center, and presents some results of the general investigation. Experiments dealing with wind speeds and other conditions required for the initiation of particle movement on Mars are described and considerations are given to the resulting effectiveness of aeolian erosion.

Greeley, R.↗

NASA NTRS1977

Properties of aerosols in the Martian atmosphere, as inferred from Viking Lander imaging data

Three types of aerosol were detected from observations of the Martian sky, Phobos, and the sun with the Viking imaging cameras. Atmospheric optical depths were derived from observations of the objects' brightness. Data on the absorption coefficient, mean size, and shape of aerosols were obtained from studies of the sky brightness, using a multiple-scattering computer code. The aerosol types were water ice ground fog, a higher-level ice cloud (polar hood), and soil particles suspended at heights up to 30 km. The properties of each type of aerosol are discussed. The data are subjected to thorough analysis, and the results are summarized.

Pollack, J. B.↗

NASA NTRS1977

A three-dimensional model of dynamical processes in the Venus atmosphere

Three-dimensional calculations of the circulation of the Venus atmosphere have resulted in mean zonal winds in the same direction and of the same magnitude as those observed; i.e., retrograde with speeds of the order of 100 m/s. The solutions exhibit other observed properties of the circulation: small horizontal temperature contrasts with the larger variations being between equator and pole, meridional velocities at mid and low latitudes less than 10 m/s, and the existence of planetary waves which at certain times show vertical flow-field contours in a horizontal Y configuration. The mechanism maintaining the large zonal winds is a nonlinear instability involving both the mean meridional circulation and planetary-scale eddies. The meridional circulation is the principal means by which zonal momentum is transported vertically. Planetary-scale eddies are the principal means by which potential energy is released, and they are also significant in transporting angular momentum horizontally. Planetary rotation plays an important role in initially generating the mean zonal winds starting from rest. Initial conditions affect the characteristics of the solutions, including the magnitude of the mean zonal velocity and whether or not planetary waves are generated.

Young, R. E.↗