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Tsouris, Costas

Publications and source records attributed to Tsouris, Costas.

At least 19 records
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2024

Influence of elevated temperature and oxygen on the capture of radioactive iodine by silver functionalized silica aerogel

Reprocessing is considered a competent strategy for spent nuclear fuel management, yet radioiodine ( 129 I) is emitted in reprocessing off-gas as a hazardous byproduct. Silver functionalized silica aerogel (Ag 0 -aerogel), a promising iodine capture material, experiences a reduction in its capacity after prolonged exposure to off-gas components at elevated temperatures, a phenomenon termed as aging. To fully understand this process, we isolated the contribution of each aging factor, exposing Ag 0 -aerogel samples to N 2 and dry air gas streams, respectively, at 150 °C for different time periods. Aged samples were loaded with I 2 to examine the capacity change and comprehensively characterized to investigate the evolution of their properties. Results show that temperature alone did not alter Ag 0 -aerogel's capacity but triggered Ag 0 nanoparticles sintering and generated organic sulfur species. The presence of O 2 reduced the capacity by ~20 %, causing (i) formation of silver sulfide (Ag 2 S) crystals and (ii) oxidation of Ag-thiolate (Ag-S-r) to Ag sulfonate (Ag-SO 3 -r). Given that Ag 2 S readily adsorbs I 2 , the formation of Ag-SO 3 -r is the major inhibitor for iodine adsorption. This hypothesis was supported by density functional theory (DFT) simulations. These findings unraveled key mechanisms of Ag 0 -aerogel aging, which are useful in the development of materials that withstand realistic spent-nuclear-fuel-reprocessing off-gas conditions.

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗
DOE OSTI2024

Demonstration of the carbon capture with building make-up air unit

Building-integrated carbon capture technology has the potential to reduce the cost of CO 2 capture while improving indoor air quality (IAQ). To promote the adoption of CO 2 capture in a building environment, this study investigated the possibility of integrating carbon capture technology with an existing rooftop make-up air unit (MAU) system to trap CO 2 . Here, in this study, a modular compact CO 2 capture system containing amine-functionalized polymer fibers was examined. The system, which was installed at the exhaust of the MAU, captures CO 2 before it leaves the building to enter the atmosphere as a greenhouse gas. The demonstrated average amount of CO 2 captured was 1.1–1.4 mmol/g of adsorbent material. Techno-economic analysis (TEA) was further performed on the CO 2 capture system, considering material costs, energy costs, as well as transportation and regeneration costs. These results were then used to estimate the levelized cost per ton CO 2 captured (LCOC). To achieve LCOC below $\$$100/t-CO 2 , adsorbents should have working capacities of 4.9 t and 3 t-CO 2 /year for 5 years and 10 years of operation, respectively. In summary, this study highlights a viable path toward the decarbonization of the commercial buildings sector and provides quantitative performance and economic insight on the suitability of building-integrated carbon capture technology.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗
DOE OSTI2024

Sub-Ambient Performance of Potassium Sarcosinate for Direct Air Capture Applications: CO 2 Flux and Viscosity Measurements

Absorption based direct air capture (DAC) technologies have garnered significant interest in recent years due to their scalability, competitive regeneration energy requirements, and low susceptibility to degradation. One of the key advantages of DAC lies in its flexible siting options and the potential to utilize low-value land. However, most of the research in this field has been focused on ambient climate zones (T > 20 °C), overlooking sub-ambient (–30 °C < T < 20 °C) regions, which comprise approximately 70 % of the Earth’s surface. To fully realize the potential of DAC, it is essential to understand how DAC solvents perform in these sub-ambient conditions before any large-scale deployment can be considered. Among DAC solvents of interest, potassium sarcosinate (K-SAR) has emerged as a promising candidate due to its high CO 2 capacity, fast uptake kinetics, compatibility with contactor packing materials, low volatility, good thermal and oxidative stability, and competitive regeneration energy requirements compared to current industry standards. This paper characterizes the CO 2 flux and viscosity of K-SAR at sub-ambient conditions and explores the potential of using ethylene glycol and triethylene glycol as additives to prevent solvent freezing in DAC applications. For 1 M K-SAR, the CO 2 flux ranges between 1.3 × 10 -5 and 8.0 × 10 -5 mol m –2 s –1 across a temperature range of –5 °C to 45 °C. Ethylene glycol is shown to effectively suppress the freezing point of K-SAR below –30 °C with volumetric loadings of the additive as low as 0.1. Here, a reaction model was developed to predict the CO 2 flux for 1 M K-SAR at different temperatures, demonstrating good agreement between experimental and theoretical fluxes.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2024

Porous Iron Electrodes Reduce Energy Consumption During Electrocoagulation of a Virus Surrogate: Insights into Performance Enhancements Using Three-Dimensional Neutron Computed Tomography

Electrocoagulation has attracted significant attention as an alternative to conventional chemical coagulation because it is capable of removing a wide range of contaminants and has several potential advantages. In contrast to most electrocoagulation research that has been performed with nonporous electrodes, in this study, we demonstrate energy-efficient iron electrocoagulation using porous electrodes. In batch operation, investigation of the external pore structures through optical microscopy suggested that a low porosity electrode with sparse connection between pores may lead to mechanical failure of the pore network during electrolysis, whereas a high porosity electrode is vulnerable to pore clogging. Electrodes with intermediate porosity, instead, only suffered a moderate surface deposition, leading to electrical energy savings of 21% and 36% in terms of electrocoagulant delivery and unit log virus reduction, respectively. Neutron computed tomography revealed the critical role of electrode porosity in utilizing the electrode’s internal surface for electrodissolution and effective delivery of electrocoagulant to the bulk. Energy savings of up to 88% in short-term operation were obtained with porous electrodes in a continuous flow-through system. Further investigation on the impact of current density and porosity in long-term operation is desired as well as the capital cost of porous electrodes.

42 ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2024

Validation Framework for Post-Combustion Carbon Capture CFD Simulations

First-principles based computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations are proposed as a fundamental tool for investigating solvent-based CO2 absorption in packed columns, due to the ability to accurately represent the underlying non-linear multiscale dynamics. In this work, we employ such models to investigate hydrodynamics of columns with structured by assessing the key hydrodynamic metrics, such as pressure drop and liquid holdup. Our models are validated with experimental data from a specifically designed column for this line of work. The test cases of gas and liquid flowrates and operating conditions were selected through a comprehensive sequential design of experiments approach offered by the CCSI2 toolset.

Panagakos, Grigorios↗
DOE OSTI2024

Technoeconomic Assessment of Phosphoric Acid and Rare Earth Element Recovery from Phosphoric Acid Sludge

Sustainability faces many challenges, including the availability of materials necessary for technological advancement. Rare earth elements (REEs), for example, are key materials for several manufacturing industries that can unlock renewable energy and sustainable development. In this study, a decanter centrifuge has been employed to successfully separated phosphoric acid and REE-containing particles from phosphoric acid sludge with concentrations ranging from 1000 to 2200 ppm REEs. Operating efficiently with up to 35 wt.% solids, the centrifuge was demonstrated to achieve approximately 95% phosphoric acid recovery and 90% REE recovery in a single pass, eliminating the need for additional processing steps. This breakthrough supports a proposed rare earth oxide (REO) recovery process integrating phosphoric acid (PA), elemental phosphorus (P4), and REO into two potential pathways: PA-REO and PA-P4-REO. These processes aim to reintroduce recovered phosphoric acid into the main product to significantly increase output and revenue. Post-separation, phosphorus-rich particles can be converted to P4, while REE-containing solids undergo further treatment including acid leaching, extraction/stripping, precipitation, and calcination to produce a marketable REO material. Technoeconomic analysis indicates promising profitability, with the PA-REO process showing a delta net present value (ΔNPV) of USD 441.8 million over a 12-year period and expected return within a year of construction, while the PA-P4-REO process yields a ΔNPV of USD 178.7 million over a 12-year return period. Both pathways offer robust financial prospects and demonstrate the feasibility of commercial-scale REO recovery from phosphoric acid sludge, offering an economically feasible approach to produce REEs for future sustainable development challenges related to sustainability.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2024

Pronounced reduction in the regeneration energy of potassium sarcosinate CO 2 capture solvent using TiO 2

Absorption-based CO 2 capture technologies face economic feasibility concerns due to the exceedingly high energy requirements of solvent regeneration. Among various proposed solutions, solid acid-aided solvent regeneration stands out as a promising approach. Studies have shown that solid materials containing Lewis and Brønsted acid sites can facilitate deprotonation of protonated amine and breakdown of carbamate molecules, which significantly increases CO 2 desorption rate and decreases regeneration energy of common solvents such as MEA and DEA. However, the influence of solid acids on alternate solvents such as amino acids is not well known. Here, we report the performance of TiO 2 for the regeneration of CO 2 -loaded aqueous potassium sarcosinate (K-Sar) solvent. K-Sar is an environmentally friendly amino-acid salt that provides high CO 2 absorption rates, making it a good candidate for both point-source and direct-air capture. TiO 2 is hydrothermally stable and contains high surface acid site concentration. Desorption of CO 2 from K-Sar starts at room temperature in the presence of TiO 2 , while such onset temperature is greater than 70°C for regeneration without TiO 2 . Further, at a temperature of 95°C, the maximum CO 2 desorption rate and cumulative CO 2 removal increase by 128% and 91%, respectively, in the presence of TiO 2 compared to the no TiO 2 case. The total regeneration energy could be reduced by ~ 50% with TiO 2 , showcasing the significant role this process can take in improving the commercial competitiveness of absorption-based CO 2 capture. Further characterization with XRD, SEM, and NMR concluded that neither the TiO 2 powder nor the solvent undergoes any physical or chemical degradation in the regeneration process, suggesting the potential of their long-term usability.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2024

Effective direct steam regeneration of bis-iminoguanidine solid sorbent used for carbon dioxide capture

A cost-effective, energy-efficient sorbent regeneration process for phase-changing guanidines used for CO 2 capture was developed based on direct-steam stripping. This approach enhances the regeneration rate, simplifies the overall CO 2 capture process, and reduces the energy cost compared to conventional conductive thermal regeneration. A direct-steam sorbent regeneration reactor was developed, demonstrating that aqueous bis(iminoguanidines) (BIG) sorbents, e.g., methylglyoxal-bis(iminoguanidine) (MGBIG) and glyoxal-bis(iminoguanidine) (GBIG), could be efficiently regenerated with up to ~ 99 % CO 2 recovery through direct-steam stripping. Using low-temperature steam at 100 °C, a 4.5 times faster regeneration rate for GBIG carbonate sorbent (e.g., 30 min for 10 g) was demonstrated compared to conductive-heating (e.g., 135 min for 10 g) at 130 °C. Additionally, fully regenerated MGBIG converts into an aqueous MGBIG solution when the steam condenses onto the sorbent surface. Condensed steam with the guanidine can be easily recycled as an aqueous solution into the gas–liquid contactor to achieve a continuous-flow CO 2 -capture process. Molecular dynamics simulation was employed to provide a better understanding of the process. Higher heat transfer rates from steam to guanidine carbonate, compared to air heating, were attributed to the vibration resonance of water molecules within MGBIG with that of vapor molecules and the effective transfer of kinetic energy from vapor to solid. Technoeconomic analysis demonstrated that direct-steam stripping significantly decreases the CO 2 capture cost by 50 % compared to traditional conductive heating methods. Further, enhanced mass transfer facilitated by low-temperature steam and subsequent condensation effectively heats up the H 2 O-containing BIG-carbonate crystals, facilitating the desorption of CO 2 from the solid crystals, thereby leading to fast, effective, and energy-efficient sorbent regeneration.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2024

Performance Restoration of Iron Electrodes by Polarity Reversal after Long-Term Surface Fouling in Wastewater Electrocoagulation

Iron electrocoagulation (Fe-EC) performance often declines with time, producing lower contaminant removal efficiencies and higher energy requirements due to formation of a fouling layer on the electrodes. Here, we investigate the formation of the fouling layer and the effectiveness of polarity reversal to restore the Fe-EC performance. A thin, porous iron oxide layer initially forms on the anode, thickening into a dense, over 150-μm thick crystalline layer after extended operation. This fouling layer restricts dissolution and diffusion of Fe ions into the bulk solution, thus increasing the anode potential required to maintain a desired electrical current and decreasing Faradaic efficiency. Polarity reversal applied when performance decline is observed effectively removes the fouling layer, thereby restoring Faradaic and contaminant removal efficiencies and decreasing energy consumption. Our findings suggest that gas generation at the cathode surface after polarity reversal causes removal of the fouling layer. This study enhances the current understanding of fouling-layer formation in Fe-EC and offers a practical approach, involving polarity reversal, to maintain electrode reactivity and optimal Fe-EC performance.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2024

Integrated Process for Direct Air Capture of CO 2 and Electrochemical Conversion to Ethanol

This Cooperative Research and Development Agreement (CRADA) between UT-Battelle, LLC and Reactwell, L.L.C. aimed to facilitate the development of an energy-efficient and cost-effective technology that captures carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) from ambient air and converts it electrochemically to ethanol. Direct air capture (DAC) of CO 2 offers the prospect of permanently lowering the atmospheric CO 2 concentration, providing economic and energy-efficient technologies can be developed and deployed at a large scale. DAC has the potential for high-capacity atmospheric CO 2 capture, the flexibility of placement anywhere on earth, and the generation of high-purity CO 2 streams. The most significant technical challenge with DAC is the very low atmospheric concentration of CO 2 , thereby requiring sorbents that bind CO 2 quickly, strongly, and selectively against other components in the air. Integrating DAC with CO 2 conversion into useful chemicals, fuels, or materials can provide an economically feasible solution for mitigating climate change. As long as the carbon contained in these products is taken from the atmosphere and no additional carbon emissions result from their production, processing, and transportation, they can be considered carbon-neutral products. This CRADA facilitated the development of a new net-zero emission technology that closes the carbon cycle by combining DAC with the catalytic electrochemical conversion of CO 2 into ethanol.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2024

Adsorption of molecular iodine and alkyl iodides from spent-nuclear-fuel-reprocessing off-gas using reduced silver mordenite

Radioactive iodine is a hazardous byproduct of spent-nuclear-fuel reprocessing that must be removed from the off-gas stream before it can be discharged. Reduced silver mordenite (Ag 0 Z) is currently the baseline material for iodine capture in the U.S. Although the performance characteristics and capture mechanisms of I 2 and CH 3 I have been established, similar investigations into long-chain organic iodides have yet to be performed. In this study, thin beds of Ag 0 Z were loaded with I 2 , CH 3 I, C 4 H 9 I, and C 12 H 25 I (5 ppm to 50 ppm) carried in a dry air stream at 150°C. The maximum iodine capacity was 105 ± 5 mg I/g Ag 0 Z for all species. Saturated Ag 0 Z samples were characterized using scanning electron microscopy, X-ray fluorescence, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, diffuse reflectance UV–visible spectroscopy, pair distribution function analysis, and thermogravimetric analysis. Further, near-complete Ag utilization and similar physical/chemical properties were observed for all samples. Through a comparison with previous studies and an investigation of aged Ag 0 Z, we propose that iodine species react with Ag + at exchange sites, forming α-AgI within the mordenite channels, and with surface Ag 0 nanoparticles, yielding β-/γ-AgI. The available Ag sites in the interior (Ag + ) and exterior (Ag 0 ) of mordenite determine the adsorption capacity since α-AgI formation is limited by the total pore volume. Potential iodine uptake routes were summarized for aging and non-aging environments. A scalable predictive model was implemented for deep-bed iodine removal, and predictions were in good agreement with experimental data. Sensitivity analysis suggests that iodine uptake kinetics is governed by pore diffusion.

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗
DOE OSTI2024

Technology Development and Integration for Volume Production of High Purity Rare Earth Metals from Phosphate Processing

Under this project and in collaboration with Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL), Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL), Florida International University (FIU), and Mosaic, the FIPR Institute successfully developed and demonstrated on laboratory batch scale a complete processing technology for production of high-purity rare earth elements (REE) in the form of mixed rare earth oxides (MREO) and rare earth metals (REM) using phosphoric acid sludge (a byproduct from phosphate mining) as the REE feedstock. Based on the research results, a technical research plan has been developed with expanded team members to elevate the technology readiness level (TRL) of the subject technology from 4 to 6 by conducting continuous testing of the processing flowsheet with the ultimate goal of producing about 900 tons per year of REM using the phosphate mining byproduct. Those 900 tons of REM would contain approximately 180 tons of Y, 120 tons of Nd, 50 tons of Gd, 37 tons of Dy, 33 tons of Sm, and 31 tons of Pr, meeting the US demand of roughly 39%, 6%, 42%, 48%, 101% and 7% for these elements, respectively. The advanced technologies for REE separation and purification involves three technology companies: K-Technologies, Inc. would test their continuous-ion-exchange/continuous-ion chromatography technologies on both the REE leachate and solvent extraction concentrate for 4 production of high-purity individual or binary REM. Rare Earth Salts would test their innovative electrochemical technology on the REE leachate or re-dissolved MREO in dilute acid for production of high-purity individual or binary REM. Rare Earth Technologies, Inc. would evaluate their advanced chromatographic separation technology on the dissolved MREO product for production of high-purity individual or binary REM.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2024

Physical and Electrochemical Characterization of Aluminum Electrodes during Electrocoagulation

Electrocoagulation (EC) of synthetic groundwater was conducted using a sacrificial aluminum electrode in a flow-through EC reactor with short retention times (<1 min) under varying hydrodynamic and electrochemical conditions. The treated water was allowed to settle for 24 h and achieved silicate removal of up to 50 ± 4%, and hardness removal of 11 ± 1%. Physical, chemical, and electrochemical characterization was performed to explore changes in electrode surface morphology and composition. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) showed that chemical reactions at the electrode/water interface are sensitive to changes in the immediate chemical environment. We demonstrate that the most energy-intensive step in EC is aluminum dissolution at the anode, which remained fairly constant due to the continuous renewal of the anode’s surface, a result of aluminum dissolution. At the cathode, a structural change in the oxide layer, from γ-Al 2 O 3 to gibbsite, was detected by grazing-incidence X-ray diffraction, which decreased the resistance to charge transfer at the cathode surface, resulting in decreased electrode resistance. The high flow rate in the system minimized the accumulation of aluminum hydroxide solids and aluminum ions at the electrode/water interface, which minimized the formation of thick scalants and amorphous Al(OH) 3 on the cathode and anode, respectively. In conclusion, it was further demonstrated by EIS that under these conditions the resistance to charge transfer was constant throughout the duration of the experiment.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2023

High-gradient magnetic separation of colloidal uranium oxide particles from soil components in aqueous suspensions

The separation of uranium oxide (UO 2 ) particles from soil-surrogate particles in aqueous suspensions was achieved using filtration enhanced by a magnetic field. Enhanced attraction of paramagnetic UO 2 colloids to a ferromagnetic stainless-steel filter placed in a strong magnetic field arises because of the positive magnetic susceptibility of the particles and the high-gradient field generated near ferromagnetic fibers. Enhanced uptake of smaller particles over larger ones occurs through Brownian motion that promotes the collision of particles with the ferromagnetic fibers of the filter. Hence, this work focused on UO 2 particles in the colloidal size range. Experiments used a water-cooled electromagnet and an array of permanent magnets. Chemical analysis showed that the magnetic field increased the capture efficiency of uranium particles from a range of 27–53% with the magnet off up to 98% with the magnet on after a single pass of the suspension through the filter. Further, the recovery of the UO 2 particles from the filter, however, was more difficult to achieve. Small amounts of UO 2 , together with significant amounts of background SiO 2 particles, were removed from the filter during a first flush with the magnetic field on. A much larger recovery of UO 2 was not observed until a second out-of-field flush was performed, which also released some SiO 2 . The degree to which particle separation was enhanced through the use of multi-stage filtration compared to single pass-through filtration was also examined. A design was suggested that could be used to optimize the separation efficiency for a continuous process.

38 RADIATION CHEMISTRY, RADIOCHEMISTRY, AND NUCLEA↗
DOE OSTI2023

Reaction Temperature Manipulation as a Process Intensification Approach for CO 2 Absorption

Reactor temperature manipulation to increase product yields of chemical reactions is a known technique used in many industrial processes. In the case of exothermic chemical reactions, the well-known Le Chatelier’s principle predicts that a decrease in temperature will displace the chemical reaction toward the formation of products by increasing the value of the equilibrium constant. The reverse is true for endothermic reactions. Reactor temperature manipulation in an industrial system, however, affects the values of many variables, including physical properties, transport parameters, reaction kinetic parameters, etc. In the case of reactive absorption, some variables change with increasing temperatures due to solute absorption, while others change in such a way that the solute absorption rate decreases. For example, temperature drop increases product formation for exothermic reactions but reduces the value of transport parameters, leading to decreasing interfacial concentrations and absorption rates. Therefore, temperature manipulation strategies must be designed carefully to achieve the process goals. In this work, we theoretically study the use of temperature as a tool to increase CO 2 absorption by solvents in a semi-batch reactor. A computer code has been developed and validated using reported experimental data. Calculated results demonstrate an increase in absorbed CO 2 of more than 28% with respect to the highest temperature used. Despite high agitation and high gas flow rate, the system is mass transfer controlled at short times, becoming kinetically controlled as time increases. An operating strategy to decrease cooling energy costs is also proposed. This study reveals that reactor temperature manipulation can be an effective process to improve CO 2 absorption by solvents in two-phase semi-batch reactors.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2023

Tailoring Chemical Absorption-Precipitation to Lower the Regeneration Energy of a CO 2 Capture Solvent

Solvent-based CO 2 capture consumes significant amounts of energy for solvent regeneration. To improve energy efficiency, this study investigates CO 2 fixation in a solid form through solvation, followed by ionic self-assembly-aided precipitation. Based on the hypothesis that CO 3 2- ions may bind with monovalent metal ions, we introduced Na + into an aqueous hexane-1,6-diamine solution where CO 2 forms carbamate and bicarbonate. Then, Na + ions in the solvent act as a seed for ionic self-assembly with diamine carbamate to form an intermediate ionic complex. The recurring chemical reactions lead to the formation of an ionic solid from a mixture of organic carbamate/carbonate and inorganic sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO 3 ), which can be easily removed from the aqueous solvent through sedimentation or centrifugation and heated to release the captured CO 2 . Mild-temperature heating of the solids at 80–150 °C causes decomposition of the solid CO 2 -diamine-Na molecular aggregates and discharge of CO 2 . This sorbent regeneration process requires 6.5–8.6 GJ/t CO 2 . It was also found that the organic carbamate/carbonate solid, without NaHCO 3 , contains a significant amount of CO 2 , up to 6.2 mmol CO 2 /g-sorbent, requiring as low as 2.9–5.8 GJ/t CO 2 . In conclusion, molecular dynamic simulations support the hypothesis of using Na + to form relatively less stable, yet sufficiently solid, complexes for the least energy-intensive recovery of diamine solvents compared to bivalent carbonate–forming ions.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2023

Electrocoagulation of high-salinity produced water: lessons learned from its early applications in unconventional reservoir plays

Ample research has demonstrated that electrocoagulation is a versatile technology capable of facilitating the removal of a wide range of physical, biological, organic, and inorganic constituents such as suspended solids, turbidity, bacteria, viruses, oil and grease, organic carbon (including chemical and biological oxygen demand), silica, fluoride, and so on. Despite its purported advantages and extensive lab-scale evaluations, it has not yet been widely adopted for water and wastewater treatment and reuse at commercial scale. This is symptomatic of a chasm between its technological capabilities on one hand and field performance and reputation on the other. Herein, we opine as to why this might be the case using our collective experiences with the oil and gas industry as an exemplar. In this study, we highlight scientific, technological, engineering, and business issues that need to be addressed to realize the full potential of this promising technology.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗