Thermal emission spectra of the earth and atmosphere obtained from the Nimbus 4 Michelson interferometer experiment
Thermal emission spectra of earth and atmosphere obtained by Michelson interferometer on Nimbus-4 satellite
Conrath, B. J.↗
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A review of carbon monoxide sources, sinks, and concentrations in the earth's atmosphere
Carbon monoxide is a toxic pollutant which is continually introduced into the earth's atmosphere in significant quantities. There are apparently some mechanisms operating which destroy most of the CO in the atmosphere, i.e., a carbon monoxide sink. These mechanisms have not as yet been established in a quantitative sense. This report discusses the various possible removal mechanisms which warrant serious consideration. Particular emphasis is given to chemical reactions (especially that with OH), soil bacteria and other biological action, and transport effects. The sources of carbon monoxide, both natural and anthropogenic, are reviewed and it is noted that there is quite possibly a significant undefined natural source. Atmospheric CO concentrations are discussed and their implications on carbon monoxide lifetime, sinks and sources are considered.
Bortner, M. H.↗
Aerodynamic Evidence Pertaining to the Entry of Tektites into the Earth's Atmosphere
Evidence is presented which shows that the Australian and Java tektites entered the earth's atmosphere and experienced ablation by severe aerodynamic heating in hypervelocity flight. The laboratory experiments on hypervelocity ablation have reproduced ring-wave flow ridges and coiled circumferential flanges like those found on certain of these tektites. Systematic striae distortions exhibited in a thin layer beneath the front surface of australites also are reproduced in the laboratory ablation experiments, and are shown to correspond to the calculated distortions for aerodynamic ablation of a glass. About 98 percent of Australian tektites represent aerodynamically stable configurations during the ablative portion of an entry trajectory. Certain meteorites exhibit surface features similar to those on tektites.
AERODYNAMIC HEATING↗
Earth Global Reference Atmospheric Model 2007 (Earth-GRAM07)
GRAM is a Fortran software package that can run on a variety of platforms including PC's. GRAM provides values of atmospheric quantities such as temperature, pressure, density, winds, constituents, etc. GRAM99 covers all global locations, all months, and heights from the surface to approx. 1000 km). Dispersions (perturbations) of these parameters are also provided and are spatially and temporally correlated. GRAM can be run in a stand-alone mode or called as a subroutine from a trajectory program. GRAM07 is diagnostic, not prognostic (i.e., it describes the atmosphere, but it does not forecast). The source code is distributed free-of-charge to eligible recipients.
Leslie, Fred W.↗
Models of Earth's Atmosphere (120 to 1000 Km)
Atmospheric conditions encountered by a spacecraft in orbit about the Earth are important factors in space vehicle design, mission planning, and mission operations. Density is the primary atmospheric property that affects the spacecraft's orbital altitude, lifetime, and motion in the altitude range of 120 to 1000 kilometers. Near the lower limit of this range where density is greatest, a spacecraft will generally remain in orbit for a very short time; near the upper limit, the density effect on orbital lifetime is almost negligible. Density directly affects the torques which result from aerodynamic interaction between the space vehicle and the atmosphere; such torques must be considered in design of spacecraft attitude control systems. Density scale height is required in heating calculations for space vehicles re-entering the Earth's upper atmosphere. Density as well as chemical composition and temperature are needed in calculating a spacecraft's drag coefficient. Chemical composition and temperature also are required in the design of experiment sensors to be flown in this altitude range. Because of variability of atmospheric conditions with spatial location and solar condition, invariant models of the Earth's atmosphere (120 to 1000 kilometers) would not be useful for most engineering applications. Therefore, this monograph presents a computerized version of Jacchia's prediction method to provide models of the Earth's atmosphere which vary with solar condition and location. The resulting atmospheric models, which are predicted for particular times and locations, provide atmospheric density, chemical composition, temperature, molecular mass, and density scale height between 120 and 1000 kilometers altitude. In addition to the computerized method, a quick-look prediction method is given that may be used to obtain an estimate of atmospheric density for any time and spatial location without the use of a computer. A sample problem illustrates this method. Both methods provide models of mean density and models having reasonable upper extremes for density. The analytical approaches in both methods are considered to be the best available, but they could be refined considerably by additional data and study. Information contained in this monograph applies to altitudes between 120 and 1000 kilometers; other design criteria monographs in this series will provide atmospheric information below this altitude region.
Weidner, D. K.↗
Use of Forecast Atmosphere for Earth Entry, Descent, and Landing Modeling
Flight mechanics simulations are used to characterize the performance of Earth entry, descent, and landing vehicles. Atmospheric prediction models are often a key component of these simulations. Global atmospheric models are used for both engineering design due to their ability to define atmospheric properties over a large swath of locations and times as well as used for the availability of atmospheric uncertainties in the models that can be used in statistical performance analysis. However for day-of-flight operations, the use of forecast atmospheres based on more current measurements are beneficial to the accuracy of the performance prediction, including landing locations. Reanalysis of these forecasts can also be used for post-flight analysis, including trajectory reconstruction. This paper describes how forecast atmospheres can be beneficial for Earth entry, descent, and landing analysis and ways these models can be implemented in simulations.
Soumyo Dutta↗
The distribution of temperature maxima for micrometeorites decelerated in the earth's atmosphere without melting
A simple model for the statistics of heating of micrometeorites decelerated in the earth's atmosphere without melting predicts that for 10 micron particles with thermal emissivity near 1, roughly half of those with density 1 g/cc are heated above 550 C, while half of those with density 3 g/cc are heated above 800 C. In the study of stratosphere collected interplanetary dust, the model can be helpful in identifying petrographic thermometers of the atmospheric entry process, and in understanding the most recent history of this new class of extraterrestrial material available in the laboratory.
Fraundorf, P.↗
Evolution of a steam atmosphere during earth's accretion
The evolution of an impact-generated steam atmosphere around an accreting earth is presently modeled under the assumption of Safronov (1978) accretion, in a scheme that encompasses the degassing of planetesimals on impact, thermal blanketing by the steam atmosphere, surface-to-interior water exchange, the shock heating and convective cooling of the earth's interior, and hydrogen escape due both to solar EUV-powered planetary wind and impact erosion. The model yields four distinct classes of impact-generated atmospheres: the first, on which emphasis is placed, has as its salient feature a molten surface that is maintained by the opacity of a massive water vapor atmosphere; the second occurs when the EUV-limited escape exceeds the impact degassing rate, while the third is dominated by impact erosion and the fourth is characterized by an atmosphere more massive than any thus far encountered.
Zahnle, Kevin J.↗
Orbit determination support for Hiten's aerobraking in the Earth's atmosphere
Two passes of the ISAS (Japan's Institute of Space and Astronautical Science) Hiten spacecraft through the Earth's atmosphere, at perigee altitudes of 125 km and 120 km, during Mar. 1991 marked the first aerobraking technology demonstrations for an object in cis-lunar orbit traveling at near Earth escape velocity. Prediction and control of perigee altitude to better than 1 km was desired to assure spacecraft survival. Covariance analysis provided confidence that prediction accuracy better than 200 m for support of final trim maneuver design was achievable with NASA DSN (Deep Space Network) tracking support. ISAS used orbit determination results in their decisions to cancel final trim maneuvers. Post flight reconstructions, marking the first combined use of DSN and ISAS tracking data, yielded perigee altitude solutions which agree with the near real time mission operations support predictions to better than 50 m.
Efron, L.↗
The oxidizing capacity of the earth's atmosphere - Probable past and future changes
A number of critical atmospheric chemical problems depend on the earth's oxidizing capacity, which is essentially the global burden of oxidants in the lower atmosphere. There is limited direct evidence for changes in the earth's oxidizing capacity since recent preindustrial times when, because of industrial and poulation growth, increasing amounts of O3 precursor trace gases (carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and hydrocarbons) have been released into the atmosphere. The concentrations of O3 and possibly H2O2 have increased over large regions. Models predict that tropospheric O3 will increase about 0.3-1.0 percent per year over the next 50 years with both positive and negative trends possible for OH and H2O2. Models and the observational network for oxidants are improving, but validation of global models is still at an early stage.
Thompson, Anne M.↗
Five Decades Observing Earth's Atmospheric Trace Gases Using Ultraviolet and Visible Backscatter Solar Radiation from Space
Over the last five decades, Earth’s atmosphere has been extensively monitored from space using different spectral ranges. Early efforts were directed at improving weather forecasts with the first meteorological satellites launched in the 1960s. Soon thereafter, the intersection between weather, climate and atmospheric chemistry led to the observation of atmospheric composition from space. During the 1970s the Nimbus satellite program started regular monitoring of ozone integrated columns and water vapor profiles using the Backscatter Ultraviolet Spectrometer, the Infrared Interferometer Spectrometer and the Satellite Infrared Spectrometer instruments. Five decades after these pioneer efforts, continuous progress in instrument design, and retrieval techniques allow researchers to monitor tropospheric concentrations of a wide range of species with implications for air quality, climate and weather. The time line of historic, present and future space-borne instruments measuring ultraviolet and visible backscattered solar radiation designed to quantify atmospheric trace gases is presented. We describe the instruments technological evolution and the basic concepts of retrieval theory. We include a review of algorithms developed for ozone, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide, formaldehyde, bromine monoxide, water vapor and glyoxal, a selection of studies using these algorithms, the challenges they face and how these challenges can be addressed. The paper ends by providing insights on the opportunities that new instruments will bring to the atmospheric chemistry, weather and air quality communities and how to address the pressing need for long-term, inter-calibrated data records necessary to monitor the response of the atmosphere to rapidly changing ecosystems.
Infrared Interferometer Spectrometer↗
Calculations of neutron flux spectra induced in the earth's atmosphere by galactic cosmic rays
Calculations have been carried out to determine the neutron flux induced in the earth's atmosphere by galactic protons and alpha particles at solar minimum for a geomagnetic latitude of 42 N. Neutron flux spectra were calculated using Monte Carlo and discrete ordinates methods, and various comparisons with experimental data are presented. The magnitude and shape of the calculated neutron-leakage spectrum at the particular latitude considered support the theory that the cosmic-ray-albedo-neutron-decay mechanism is the source of the protons and electrons trapped in the Van Allen belts.
Armstrong, T. W.↗
Calculations of neutron flux spectra induced in the earth's atmosphere by galactic cosmic rays.
Calculations have been carried out to determine the neutron flux induced in the earth's atmosphere by galactic protons and alpha particles at solar minimum for a geomagnetic latitude of 42 N. Neutron flux spectra in the energy range from about 10 to the minus 8th to about 100,000 MeV at various depths in the atmosphere were calculated by using Monte Carlo and discrete ordinates methods, and various comparisons with experimental data are presented. The magnitude and shape of the calculated neutron leakage spectrum at the particular latitude considered support the theory that the cosmic ray albedo neutron decay (Crand) mechanism is the source of the protons trapped in the inner radiation belt.
Armstrong, T. W.↗
Interactions of CH4 and CO in the earth's atmosphere
Global distributions, sources, and sinks of methane and carbon monoxide in upper and lower levels of the earth's atmosphere, and the global budgets of methane and carbon monoxide, are studied, with emphasis on cumulative pollution. Stratospheric contents, vertical profiles of concentrations, simulation of vertical transport through the atmosphere, and latitudinal distributions are examined. Diffuse and localized (urban) concentrations of CO as pollutant are studied, and anthropogenic sources and sinks for CH4 and CO are considered. Perturbation of the CH4-CO-CO2 cycle, crucial to self-cleansing mechanisms of the troposphere, by anthropogenic CO emissions, and the effect of CO long life as global pollutant, are investigated.
Wofsy, S. C.↗
A study of the motion and aerodynamic heating of missiles entering the earth's atmosphere at high supersonic speeds
A simplified analysis of the velocity and deceleration history of missiles entering the earth's atmosphere at high supersonic speeds is presented. The results of this motion analysis are employed to indicate means available to the designer for minimizing aerodynamic heating. The heating problem considered involves not only the total heat transferred to a missile by convection, but also the maximum average and local time rates of convective heat transfer.
Allen, Julian H↗
On the influence of atmospheric transmission functions on infrared measurements in planetary atmospheres, part II Final report
Earth atmospheric radiation spectral influences on infrared measurements of planetary atmospheres
INFRARED ASTRONOMY↗
Bringing Research to New Heights: How CASEI Integrates Data Curation, Discovery, and Education in Earth and Atmospheric Science
A challenging aspect of any project is finding all the relevant data and information needed to address the research objective. Searching for data and its contextual metadata can become overwhelming for both undergraduate and graduate students, potentially hindering their work and affecting the scientific discoveries that could be made in the long run. To ease this, the NASA Airborne Data Management Group (ADMG), part of the Interagency Implementation and Advanced Concepts Team (IMPACT), has developed the new Catalog of Archived Suborbital Earth science Investigations (CASEI). CASEI includes a web portal that users, be they professionals or students, can use to search, browse, discover, and locate relevant observations associated with NASA’s airborne and field campaigns. Users are able to query data in a variety of ways (via keywords, locations, timeframe, etc) from one online portal, minimizing the amount of time needed to search. CASEI also allows access to key contextual metadata and data from a wide array of Earth and Atmospheric Science topics such as aerosols and boundary layer processes, as well as ice and glacial properties or processes. Users are able to access the data via DOI links to data set landing pages. This presentation will demonstrate how CASEI can be used for classwork and student research. Teachers can provide CASEI to their students as a tool for their studies, or use it to find data themselves while constructing their curriculums. Additionally, users can leverage CASEI to learn about NASA’s Earth and Atmospheric Science research efforts and to find data relevant for assignments or other research projects. The metadata in CASEI has been carefully curated, and highlights important information about the campaigns and their data. Students can explore and learn about the scientific objectives of the campaigns, as well as descriptions of the campaign’s best research days. Having access to contextual metadata in an easy to understand way can help plant the seeds of new ideas in students at any point in their academic journey. From class projects to theses/dissertations and other research, CASEI is a valuable emerging tool for data discovery, giving access to all users and guiding researchers to NASA’s unique airborne data to answer the burning Earth Science questions of our time.
education↗
Crossing the Boundaries in Planetary Atmospheres - From Earth to Exoplanets
The past decade has been an especially exciting time to study atmospheres, with a renaissance in fundamental studies of Earths general circulation and hydrological cycle, stimulated by questions about past climates and the urgency of projecting the future impacts of humankinds activities. Long-term spacecraft and Earth-based observation of solar system planets have now reinvigorated the study of comparative planetary climatology. The explosion in discoveries of planets outside our solar system has made atmospheric science integral to understanding the diversity of our solar system and the potential habitability of planets outside it. Thus, the AGU Chapman Conference Crossing the Boundaries in Planetary Atmospheres From Earth to Exoplanets, held in Annapolis, MD from June 24-27, 2013 gathered Earth, solar system, and exoplanet scientists to share experiences, insights, and challenges from their individual disciplines, and discuss areas in which thinking broadly might enhance our fundamental understanding of how atmospheres work.
hydrological cycle↗