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NASA NTRSDate not supplied

SERENE: Saturn Enceladus Return Explorer with Nuclear Electric Propulsion

A ‘quick’ Enceladus sample return mission concept was developed based on the scientist recommendations at the recent ‘Accelerating Space Science with Nuclear Technology Workshop’. The Nuclear Electric Propulsion spacecraft assumed a follow-on 40 kWe nuclear reactor using the demonstrated 40 kWe Fission Surface Power system, expected in the early 2030s. The NEP vehicle also utilized a set of NEXT-C ion thrusters as well as planned Artemis commercial launchers. By launching the 40 kW NEP vehicle on a Starship and adding the propellants of 15 tankers, the 27t probe could be sent on a direct trajectory to Saturn (no Earth or Jupiter flybys) where NEP was used for Saturn capture, spiral down, spiral up and return to the Earth. A small lander obtained the surface Enceladus sample. Using the 40 kW NEP provided a round-trip time of only 16.5 years. A second option was more attractive from a science perspective whereby the NEP vehicle would deliver a large, 6t chemical lander to low Enceladus orbit where it would grab and return a sample to Earth (similar to the recent Orbilander design but in reverse). After deploying the lander, the NEP vehicle would stay in Saturn space performing a moon tour by orbiting four more moons and mapping the large moon of Titan. This option took slightly longer (18.5 yrs) due to the chemical return leg limitations. Both options demonstrated the agility, payload capability, and sample return goals the workshop recommended. An all-chemical option with two stages was roughly analyzed but took 21.5 yrs and required a Jupiter gravity assist.

Nuclear Electric Propulsion↗

NASA NTRS1964

Thermal Design

An essential phase of the Explorer XIII development was a thermal study and design to provide an acceptable temperature environment for the electronics components and external surfaces of the satellite during ascent and in orbit. It was necessary to establish by preflight analysis and tests that tolerable temperatures could be maintained in three regimes of flight. In the first regime (from launch until release of the heat shield) the satellite was subjected to radiative and conductive heat from the shield. In the second regime, after release of the shield at 350,000 feet, the satellite was heated by free molecular flow. In the third regime - the orbit phase - it was necessary that temperatures within limits for a 1-year lifetime be established. In addition to these three regimes, a study was made to investigate the effect of elevated rocket-motor temperatures during launch and after burnout. This chapter will deal with some pertinent preflight estimates and correlation of these estimates with flight data.

Explorer XIII Satellite↗

NASA NTRS1977

The Soviet-American Conference on Cosmochemistry of the Moon and Planets: Part 1

The present volumes contain papers presented at the Soviet-American Conference on the Cosmochemistry of the Moon and Planets held in Moscow from the 4th to the 8th of June, 1974. The basic goal of the conference was consideration of the origin of the planets of the solar system, based on the physical and chemical data obtained by study of the material of the Moon and planets. Papers at the conference were presented in the following sessions: 1. Differentiation of the material of the Moon and planets 2. The thermal history of the Moon 3. Lunar gravitation and magnetism 4. Chronology of the Moon, planets, and meteorites 5. The role of exogenic factors in the formation of the lunar surface 6. Cosmochemical hypotheses about the origin and evolution of the Moon and planets 7. New data about the planets Mercury, Venus, Mars, and Jupiter The results presented in the papers are of exceptional scientific interest since on the one hand they contain new knowledge about the matter of the Moon and planets, while on the other they summarize significant material accumulated during recent years as the result of spacecraft missions to the Moon, Venus, Mars, Mercury, and Jupiter.

Moon↗

NASA NTRS2026

Gateway Element and Payload Materials Outgassing Analyses: HALO, HERMES, and ERSA

Gateway was intended to be humanity’s first space station around the Moon, but its development has been paused as the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) shifts focus to achieving the United States’ National Space Policy goals. Instead of an orbiting lunar outpost, NASA will now pursue the development of a lunar surface base to support a sustained human presence on the Moon. Before the program’s pause, Gateway’s Induced Environments team worked to ensure payloads and elements (i.e., modules) complied with induced environment requirements. Methods developed and insights gained from this work will have applicability to NASA’s Moon Base and the potential repurposing of Gateway elements and payloads, as well as to induced environments modeling for future space stations. The Gateway program’s induced environment included molecular contamination, electric thruster plume sputter and redeposition, and lunar dust transfer from the Human Landing System (HLS). Primary sources of external molecular contamination included materials outgassing, chemical thruster plume contamination, and vacuum venting. The focus of this paper will be on element- and payload-level materials outgassing analyses performed for Gateway Configuration 1, extending the previously-developed framework for Gateway system-level external molecular contamination modeling. Gateway Configuration 1 consisted of the Power and Propulsion Element (PPE) and the Habitation and Logistics Outpost (HALO). It also included payloads like the European Radiation Sensor Array (ERSA) attached to PPE and the Heliophysics Environmental and Radiation Measurement Experiment Suite (HERMES) attached to HALO. The element- and payload-level analyses to be introduced in this paper for HALO, HERMES, and ERSA enabled high-fidelity descriptions of Gateway’s external molecular contamination environment. Approaches to geometric modeling, meshing, outgassing rate assignment, molecular transport modeling, and analysis methodology will be presented. Element and payload contaminant deposition onto sensitive Gateway receiver surfaces will be summarized and results compared to induced environment requirements. While these results incorporate refinements made over the course of the program, they were not intended to be final. Therefore, modeling assumptions and inputs, potential improvements, and lessons-learned will be documented to inform future work on Moon Base, repurposed elements and payloads, and other space stations.

Gateway↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Predicting Team Functioning in Long Term Space Missions Using Acoustic and Linguistic Measures

Maintaining optimal team functioning is critical for long-duration space exploration missions, yet traditional monitoring methods, such as self-reports and wearable sensors, often impose operational burdens or suffer from bias. This paper investigates a non-intrusive speech-based artificial intelligence (AI) framework to predict degradations in team functioning using data from the Human Exploration Research Analog (HERA) of the U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). Using acoustic features, linguistic descriptors, and semantic embeddings, we evaluate static non-linear and temporal machine learning models to predict both objective (task accuracy) and subjective (self-reported efficacy and cohesion) team functioning outcomes. Results indicate that temporal models outperform static approaches, with prediction of objective task accuracy in Team Interaction Battery (TIB) improving from near chance to 71%. Self-reported outcomes, including team efficacy and cohesion, are predicted more reliably than task performance, achieving balanced accuracies of up to 85.56% and 78.12%, respectively, and are found to be most strongly associated with acoustic features. In a second interdependent task, the MMSEV–EVA, accuracies of up to 78% are achieved using temporal models with acoustic features. Furthermore, incorporating just 1–2 days of team-specific historical data systematically improved performance, and acoustic markers from informal pre-task interactions provided modest predictive gains. Finally, while automated preprocessing yielded viable accuracy, humancorrected data provided moderate performance gains, though transcription error rates did not significantly correlate with model performance. These findings highlight the potential of speech as a passive, high-fidelity monitoring tool for autonomous habitats.

Temporal modeling↗

NASA NTRS2026

Radiation-Conditioned Ti–hBN Coatings for Space Mechanisms: Bridging Tribology and Irradiation Effects from Laboratory to Low-Earth Orbit

The longevity of tribological components in extraterrestrial environments is challenged by abrasive regolith, extreme temperatures, and ionizing radiation. This study evaluates the performance of vacuum plasma sprayed (VPS) Ti-2vol.% hexagonal boron nitride (hBN) coatings applied to joint mechanisms such as rod and slot, ball and socket, and hinge assemblies, fabricated from Al6061 and Ti6Al4V for planetary structures. Coated and uncoated samples were tested under vacuum with lunar regolith simulant (JSC-1A), followed by environmental exposures including electron radiation and thermal cycling. Results show that coated samples consistently outperformed uncoated counterparts across all configurations. Wear depth in coated components was reduced by over 80%, as confirmed by 3D profilometry and surface imaging. SEM analysis revealed severe abrasion and localized plastic deformation in uncoated surfaces, while coated samples retained structural integrity due to synergy of hard protective phases formed during deposition and retained hBN providing solid lubrication in the sliding surface. Coated and exposed samples exhibited smoother actuation profiles and reduced friction, indicating a beneficial "conditioning" effect from environmental exposure. The coatings-maintained performance even on complex geometries with minimal delamination. These findings demonstrate the potential of VPS Ti-hBN coatings to extend the operational life of lunar mechanisms, bridging laboratory-scale tribology with flight-relevant mechanical applications.

tribology↗

NASA NTRS2025

Photophoretic Propulsion Enabling Mesosphere Exploration NIAC Phase I Final Report

This Phase I report presents a comprehensive study on photophoretic flyers—innovative, ultralight, solar-powered vehicles that harness photophoretic forces generated via Knudsen pumping to achieve sustained flight in the mesosphere (50–80 km altitude). By integrating advanced materials such as nanocardboard— characterized by its extremely low areal density (~1 g/m²) and high bending stiffness—with ultrathin light-absorbing coatings, the project converts incident solar radiation directly into a directed thrust. Extensive experimental investigations, coupled with high-fidelity computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations using ANSYS Fluent, validate the concept across various three-dimensional geometries, including spherical, conical, and rocket-shaped configurations. These simulations bridge the gap between free-molecular and continuum flow regimes, demonstrating that optimized designs can generate lift forces sufficient to support kilogram-scale payloads even in low-pressure environments. At the heart of this innovation is the use of Knudsen pumping, where temperature gradients across porous surfaces induce directional gas flow, creating a modest overpressure that provides lift. The report introduces an analytical framework that interpolates between the well-known low-Reynolds number drag regime and the high-Reynolds number momentum theory. This model accurately predicts lift based on design parameters such as microchannel dimensions, porous wall geometry, areal density, and nozzle exit area. For instance, simulations indicate that 10-meter-scale structures with carefully engineered porous walls can achieve the necessary pressure differential to support scientifically significant payloads (~1 kg). The study also explores a hybrid propulsion approach that combines solar buoyancy with photophoretic lift. Initially, solar heating creates a buoyant force that elevates the flyer to mesospheric altitudes. Once in the optimal pressure range, the photophoretic mechanism—powered by Knudsen pumping—takes over as the primary source of lift, ensuring stable, long-duration flight. This dual-mode operation not only facilitates the deployment of photophoretic flyers but also broadens the potential applications for mesospheric exploration. In addition to propulsion, the report investigates the integration of photophoretic thrusters for trajectory control of existing research balloons in the upper stratosphere. By dynamically adjusting the nozzle orientation and controlling the flow-through velocity, these thrusters provide precise maneuverability, enabling the flyers to counteract atmospheric disturbances and adjust their flight paths in real time. For example, a photophoretic thruster approximately 7.5 by 7.5 meters in size could be unfolded below a payload gondola of a 60 million-cubic-foot zero-pressure balloon. Such a thruster can provide horizontal speed control of approximately 1 m/s using only sunlight and no moving parts (except those needed to track the Sun and control the jet direction). Importantly, photophoretic thrusters operate more efficiently at higher altitudes, which is complementary to known trajectory control techniques, such as propellers and tethered wings, which are more effective at lower altitudes. Finally, the report identifies three scientific research thrusts where mesospheric aircraft technology can have a profound impact: atmospheric tides, characterization of gravity waves, and investigation of mesospheric instabilities. Overall, the findings of this Phase I project represent a significant advancement in photophoretic propulsion technology. By demonstrating that large-scale, ultralight structures can be powered solely by solar radiation—via carefully engineered Knudsen pumping—this work lays a robust foundation for scalable, near-space flight architectures. Future refinements in material fabrication, structural optimization, and integrated trajectory control are expected to further enhance performance, paving the way for operational demonstrations that could revolutionize atmospheric science, remote sensing, and communication networks.

Knudsen Pump↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

NASA's RPS Program Status Update and Future Outlook

Radioisotope Power Systems (RPS) have been safely providing the United States with the power to explore space for almost 65 years. NASA established the RPS Program in 2010 to support specialized science missions and potential future opportunities more effectively and efficiently. The RPS Program ensures the availability of RPS for the exploration of the solar system in environments where conventional solar or chemical power generation is impractical or impossible. NASA missions have utilized space nuclear power to explore planets, moons, and interstellar space, enabling missions to some of the deepest, darkest, and dustiest regions in the solar system and beyond. This scientific exploration has deepened our understanding of the solar system and our role within. The RPS Program, in partnership with the Department of Energy (DOE) Office of Nuclear Energy continues to operate as an interagency partnership to provide robust radioisotope power system solutions to spacecraft that conduct missions to extreme environments for science and exploration. This Program invests in systems and technologies to ensure that NASA maintains this capability well into the future and it manages processes that ensure the safe use and launch of these systems. This paper provides a synopsis of current activities of the RPS Program, and it introduces a focus on the commercialization of RPS to enable a variety of future mission applications.

radioisotope power systems↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Laser Forming of Sheet Metal for In-Space Manufacturing Applications

As the in-space economy matures, the migration of typically Earth-bound manufacturing methods, such as metal forming and joining, up to space will be required to meet the increasing demand for refueling and supply depots, habitats, laboratories, lunar surface structures, and sites for deep-space exploration shipbuilding. Only in this way can the magnitude of individual structures begin to exceed what can be launched, deployed, docked, or inflated and allow true economies of scale to be unlocked in space. However, typical terrestrial methods of forming and shaping sheet metal require massive machinery with the ability to deflect reaction forces to a large mass in a fixed reference frame (Earth). To both limit up-mass required for manufacture and to mitigate the issues of reaction forces in the relative reference frames of space, a non-contact, laser-based method of forming metal sheet is proposed. NASA Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC), in cooperation with DARPA and the University of Florida (UF), have begun investigation of non-contact methods of laser forming sheet metal in thermal vacuum (TVAC) conditions to great success. To date, several grades of aluminum, stainless steel, and titanium coupons have been formed via laser-induced internal stresses in these metals at both ambient atmosphere and vacuum conditions. Temperatures in these tests ranged from -120 to 60 C, and though the total energy required to induce strain does vary with workpiece temperature and environmental pressure, the method remains predictable and controllable for the materials investigated. It is believed that this method will revolutionize manufacturing in-space as it not only continues to build upon the capabilities of the laser (sensing, marking, cutting, drilling, joining, and now forming) as an all-in-one tool, but also reduces the need to counteract forming forces as would be required in mechanical bending. In theory, all required stress to induce bending is generated through thermal gradient and strain within the workpiece, meaning that the need for reaction control and fuel expense on-orbit will be limited. Archimedes once stated, “Give me a lever long enough and a fulcrum on which to place it, and I shall move the world”. With a laser as our lever and our workpiece its own fulcrum, we can move the world’s manufacturing into space.

Laser↗

NASA NTRS1992

Battery selection for space experiments

This paper will delineate the criteria required for the selection of batteries as a power source for space experiments. Four basic types of batteries will be explored, lead acid, silver zinc, alkaline manganese and nickel cadmium. A detailed description of the lead acid and silver zinc cells while a brief exploration of the alkaline manganese and nickel cadmium will be given. The factors involved in battery selection such as packaging, energy density, discharge voltage regulation, and cost will be thoroughly examined. The pros and cons of each battery type will be explored. Actual laboratory test data acquired for the lead acid and silver zinc cell will be discussed. This data will include discharging under various temperature conditions, after three months of storage and with different types of loads. A description of the required maintenance for each type of battery will be investigated. The lifetime and number of charge/discharge cycles will be discussed.

Francisco, David R.↗

NASA NTRS1968

Surveyor Project Final Report: Part 2 - Science Results

This two-part document constitutes the Project Final Report on the Surveyor spacecraft. Part I of this Technical Report consists of a technical description and an evaluation of engineering results of the systems used on Surveyor. Part II presents the science data derived from the lunar soft-landing missions, and the scientific analyses conducted by the Surveyor Scientific Evaluation Advisory Team, the Surveyor Investigator Teams, and the associated Working Croups. Results given in this part of this Technical Report are based on data evaluation before June 15, 1968. It is expected that future evaluations and analyses will provide additional science results.

Jet Propulsion Laboratory↗

NASA NTRS2026

Spacecraft Radiator Protection from Ionizing Radiation, Dust, and Excessive Heat Loss

Under a Phase II SBIR project funded by NASA Johnson Space Center (Contract No. 80NSSC25C0088), Analytical Scientific Products LLC (ASP) has been developing an actively controlled louver to protect spacecraft radiators from degradation due to exposure to various types of environmental conditions. Of particular interest are ionizing radiation during spacecraft transit through the Van Allen belts, dust during spacecraft landing and surface operations on the moon, and excessive heat loss during the long lunar night especially near the poles where the local ambient temperatures can drop below -200°C. Exposure to ionizing radiation and dust can degrade the optical properties of the radiator coating that in turn reduces its ability to reject excess heat from the spacecraft into the environment. Exposure to the extremely low temperature conditions during the lunar night near the poles can freeze the radiator fluids that can compromise the integrity of the radiator. Passive louvers constructed using thick aluminum vanes are used currently to protect spacecraft radiators from some of the above effects, but they have several drawbacks: (i) their high aerial density makes it impractical to scale them to protect the much larger spacecraft radiators needed for future manned missions to the moon and beyond, (ii) the bimetallic actuators used to open and close the vanes in passive louvers rely on external temperature alone and so the louver cannot offer protection from dust and ionizing radiation when the ambient temperatures are high, and (iii) the bimetallic actuators need time scales of the order of hours to open and close. We have addressed the above limitations of passive louvers through the development of a low aerial density and rapidly actuating actively controlled louver. It is constructed from a custom alloy that offers much higher levels of protection against the ionizing radiation, dust and excessive heat loss at a fraction of weight compared to passive louvers while providing opening and closing time scales of the order of a second. Our modular design makes it easy to scale the system up or down depending on the application. We have recently constructed a 31 inch × 31 inch module of this louver and tested its functionality and effectiveness. These tests have shown that the louver can be opened and closed in less than 2 s. It reduces the transmission of ionizing radiation by 78% to 100% (depending on the radiation source), dust transmission by more than 93%, and heat loss by more than 97%. We are currently preparing to evaluate this device at the Johnson Space Center’s cryogenic vacuum chamber where it can be subjected to simulated lunar surface conditions. This paper provides a detailed discussion of the test designs as well as the data from tests that demonstrate the effectiveness in reducing the transmission of ionizing radiation, dust, and heat under laboratory conditions.

Radiator↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Spacecraft Radiator Protection from Ionizing Radiation, Dust, and Excessive Heat Loss

Radiator↗

NASA NTRS2023

Cryogenic Flow Boiling in Microgravity: Effects of Reduced Gravity on Two-Phase Fluid Physics and Heat Transfer

With the growing interest in space exploration, cryogenic technologies involving two-phase flow and heat transfer are in high demand to successfully procure advanced space applications such as fuel depots and nuclear thermal propulsion (NTP) systems for deep space missions. However, the unique and extreme thermal properties of cryogenic fluids introduce distinct flow boiling fluid physics and energy transport phenomena, which differ significantly from those observed with conventional fluids. Understanding the unique two-phase physics in cryogenic flow boiling remains an ongoing challenge. Furthermore, the lack of readily available microgravity cryogenic steady-state heat transfer data hinders the assessment of gravitational effects on cryogenic flow boiling. This study aims to elucidate the gravitational effects on two-phase fluid physics and heat transfer by conducting the first-ever experimental measurement of cryogenic flow boiling performance using a steady-state heated method in a reduced gravity environment. Parabolic flight experiments were performed to acquire both heat transfer measurements and high-speed video of interfacial behaviors, under varying gravity levels (microgravity, hypergravity, Lunar gravity, and Martian gravity). The experiments involved flow boiling of liquid nitrogen (LN 2 ) with a near-saturated inlet along a circular heated tube of dimensions 8.5-mm inner diameter and 680-mm heated length. The operating parameters varied are mass velocity of 398.3 - 1342.8 kg/m2s, inlet quality of -0.08 to -0.01, and inlet pressure of 413.68 - 689.48 kPa. Captured microgravity flow patterns range from bubbly to annular, all having vapor structures that are larger than those under higher gravity levels. Under microgravity, absence of buoyancy yields symmetrical vapor structures without flow stratification, laying a physical foundation for the distinct two-phase heat transfer trends during LN 2 flow boiling in microgravity. Transient data collected during the flight parabolas exhibited decreasing heated wall temperature as the aircraft transitioned from hypergravity to microgravity phases. The temperature variation indicated an enhancement in flow boiling heat transfer with decreasing gravity levels and a reduction with increasing gravity levels. The effect of reduced gravity on cryogenic flow boiling heat transfer coefficient (HTC) is discussed based on steady state heat transfer analysis. Seminal HTC correlations are evaluated against the measured microgravity HTC data, of which one is identified for superior accuracy in predicting microgravity data. Finally, a new HTC correlation is proposed to improve accuracy of microgravity predictions, yet there still exists room for further improvement with future terrestrial flow boiling experiments at different flow orientations relative to Earth gravity.

Microgravity↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Early Fire Detection System for Partial and Low Gravity Environments

We present preliminary results on the development of a fire detection system for partial and low gravity environments. A significant challenge is the design of a system with a low false alarm rate. The detection system therefore has to discriminate between combustion particles, cabin, and lunar dust. Aerosol properties are measured and cross referenced to the target detectors at the Gases and Aerosols from Smoldering Polymers (GASP) Laboratory located at the NASA Glenn Research Center. A computational fluid dynamics plume model is also employed to determine the smoke transport properties of the targeted habitats.

Early fire detectioin↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Swamp Works Regolith Compaction Technologies

While the level of compaction below the lunar surface increases quickly after only a few cm of depth, in many cases during a construction mission there will be a need to excavate and transport regolith to a new location for cut-and-fill or horizontal construction of structures such as berms. In these cases to achieve high levels of bulk density, compaction must be per-formed. Additionally, in some cases surface technologies such as systems that sinter/melt the surface may desire the maximum possible compaction at the sur-face to improve melting/heating performance and the final material strength properties. Kennedy Space Center’s (KSC) Swamp Works has developed two means of compaction, lunar and mar-tian compaction. Planetary Autonomous Compaction Technology (PACT) which is part of the Multifunction End Effector for Regolith Compaction Acquisition and Transfer (MEERCAT) robotic arm end effector system’s capabilities and the Site Preparation Tooling for Operations on Mobility Platforms (STOMP) vibratory roller compactor. PACT on MEERCAT has been demonstrated to a TRL 5 and STOMP to a TRL 4 in ambient testing. The results of PACT on MEERCAT and STOMP testing will be shared with results for various simulants including BP-1, ICN-LHT-1G (aka CSM-LHT-1G), RDW-LHT-1GH (a simulant developed for the Mason Tipping Point to match characteristics of ICN-LHT-1G), and Exolith LHS-1E. This will also include discussions on methods used to verify relative density before and after compaction and means to verify density effects below depth. To calculate relative density, maximum and minimum densities for simulants were taken from literature and additional lab testing (publication in work).

redwire↗

NASA NTRS2019

Evaluation of Various Methods for Determining Bulk Compositions of Chondrules and Other Objects in Petrographic Thin Sections

Studies of many objects in petrographic thin section, such as melt inclusions in igneous rocks, chondrules and Ca-Al rich inclusions in chondritic meteorites, or clasts in lunar and other breccias, require or can benefit from knowledge of their bulk compositions. Given the scarcity of these materials, the reluctance of curators to provide more abundant material, and the extreme difficulty of cleanly separating such objects from their rock matrices, geochemical and cosmochemical studies need the ability to determine their bulk compositions from in situ methods, such as defocused beam analysis, or quantitative chemical mapping by electron beam methods.

Daniel Kent Ross↗

NASA NTRS2026

Swamp Works Regolith Compaction Technologies

While the level of compaction below the lunar surface increases quickly after only a few cm of depth, in many cases during a construction mission there will be a need to excavate and transport regolith to a new location for cut-and-fill or horizontal construction of structures such as berms. In these cases to achieve high levels of bulk density, compaction must be per-formed. Additionally, in some cases surface technolo-gies such as systems that sinter/melt the surface may desire the maximum possible compaction at the sur-face to improve melting/heating performance and the final material strength properties. Kennedy Space Center’s (KSC) Swamp Works has developed two means of compaction, lunar and mar-tian compaction. Planetary Autonomous Compaction Technology (PACT) which is part of the Multifunction End Effector for Regolith Compaction Acquisition and Transfer (MEERCAT [1]) robotic arm end effector system’s capabilities and the Site Preparation Tooling for Operations on Mobility Platforms (STOMP [2]) vibratory roller compactor. PACT on MEERCAT has been demonstrated to a TRL 5 and STOMP to a TRL 4 in ambient testing. The results of PACT on MEERCAT and STOMP testing will be shared with results for various simulants including BP-1, ICN-LHT-1G (aka CSM-LHT-1G), RDW-LHT-1GH (a simulant developed for the Mason Tipping Point to match characteristics of ICN-LHT-1G), and Exolith LHS-1E. This will also include discus-sions on methods used to verify relative density before and after compaction and means to verify density effects below depth. To calculate relative density, maximum and minimum densities for simulants were taken from literature [3] [4] [5] and additional lab test-ing (publication in work).

vibration↗