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NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Development of the Advanced Regolith Ground Operations (ARGO) Test Bed– A Robotic Construction Test Facility with Simulated Lunar Environments

NASA’s Artemis Program is working towards developing a sustained presence on the Moon and eventually Mars. To achieve this goal, robotic excavation, site preparation and construction technologies are under development to establish the capability to construct infrastructure such as launch/landing pads and radiation protection shelters. Technologies must be proven in simulated Lunar conditions prior surface demonstration missions. To that end, the Relevant Additive Construction Technology (REACT) Announcement of Collaboration Opportunities (ACO) project with AI Space Factory and the NASA Kennedy Space Center’s (KSC) Granular Mechanics and Regolith Operations Laboratory (a.k.a. Swamp Works) has developed the Advanced Regolith Ground Operations (ARGO) Test Bed. ARGO includes a ~1.5m x 1.5m x 1.2m (~5x5x4ft) vacuum chamber, cryogenically cooled thermal shroud, a 3-axis robotic positioning system, and a regolith bin. For the REACT project, a pellet extruder and feed hopper have been installed on ARGO to advance the Technology Readiness Level (TRL) of regolith-polymer composite Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) additive construction systems, processes, and materials. This paper will focus on the design and operational characteristics of the ARGO Test Bed with pellet extruder.

Moon↗
NASA NTRS2014

Internship Tasks Associated With CIF Icy Regolith Excavation and Volatile Capture Under Vacuum Conditions

Understanding the surface and atmosphere of Mars is critical to current and future development of exploration systems. Dealing with the Martian regolith-the top layer of soil-remains a significant challenge, and much research is still needed. Addressing this need, the Cryogenics Test Lab and Granular Mechanics and Regolith Operations Lab at NASA's Kennedy Space Center are partnering to develop an apparatus that utilizes simulated Martian regolith in an analogous atmospheric environment to gather data about how the material behaves when exposed to water vapor. Martian surface temperatures range from 128 K (-145 C) to 308 K (35 C), and the average pressure is approximately 4.5 Torr; which presents an environment where water can potentially exist in vapor, solid or liquid form. And based on prior Mars missions such as the Phoenix Lander, it is known that water-ice exists just below the surface. This test apparatus will attempt to recreate the conditions that contributed to the Martian ice deposits by exposing a sample to water vapor at low pressure and temperature; thereby forming ice inside the simulant via diffusion. From this, we can better understand the properties and behavior of the regolith, and have more knowledge concerning its ability to store water-and subsequently, how to dig up and extract that water-which will be crucial to sample gathering when the first manned Mars mission takes place.

Thermal-Vacuum Testing↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Development of the Advanced Regolith Ground Operations (ARGO) Test Bed – A Robotic Excavation and Construction Test Facility with Simulated Lunar Environments

NASA’s Artemis Program is working towards developing a sustained presence on the Moon and eventually Mars. To achieve this goal, robotic excavation, site preparation and construction technologies are under development to establish the capability to construct infrastructure such as launch/landing pads and radiation protection shelters. Technologies must be proven in simulated Lunar conditions prior to surface demonstration missions. To that end, the Relevant Additive Construction Technology (REACT) Announcement of Collaboration Opportunities (ACO) project with AI Space Factory and the NASA Kennedy Space Center’s (KSC) Granular Mechanics and Regolith Operations Laboratory (a.k.a. Swamp Works) has developed the Advanced Regolith Ground Operations (ARGO) Test Bed. ARGO includes a ~1.5m x 1.5m x 1.2m (~5x5x4ft) vacuum chamber, cryogenically cooled thermal shroud, 3-axis robotic positioning system, and regolith bin. For the REACT project, a pellet extruder, feed hopper, and heated 600mm x 600mm (23.6x23.6in) build plate have been installed on ARGO to advance the Technology Readiness Level (TRL) of regolith-polymer composite Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) additive construction systems, processes, and materials. This paper will focus on the design and operational characteristics of the ARGO Test Bed with pellet extruder.

regolith↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Development of the Advanced Regolith Ground Operations (ARGO) Test Bed: A Robotic Excavation and Construction Test Facility with Simulated Lunar Environments

NASA’s Artemis Program is working towards developing a sustained presence on the Moon and eventually Mars. To achieve this goal, robotic excavation, site preparation and construction technologies are under development to establish the capability to construct infrastructure such as launch/landing pads and radiation protection shelters. Technologies must be proven in simulated Lunar conditions prior to surface demonstration missions. To that end, the Relevant Additive Construction Technology (REACT) Announcement of Collaboration Opportunities (ACO) project with AI Space Factory and the NASA Kennedy Space Center’s (KSC) Granular Mechanics and Regolith Operations Laboratory (a.k.a. Swamp Works) has developed the Advanced Regolith Ground Operations (ARGO) Test Bed. ARGO includes a ~1.5m x 1.5m x 1.2m (~5x5x4ft) vacuum chamber, cryogenically cooled thermal shroud, 3-axis robotic positioning system, and regolith bin. For the REACT project, a pellet extruder, feed hopper, and heated 600mm x 600mm (23.6x23.6in) build plate have been installed on ARGO to advance the Technology Readiness Level (TRL) of regolith-polymer composite Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) additive construction systems, processes, and materials. This paper will focus on the design and operational characteristics of the ARGO Test Bed with pellet extruder.

regolith↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Selection, Production, and Properties of Regolith Polymer Composites for Lunar Construction

NASA’s Artemis Program seeks to establish a long-term presence on the Moon to enable scientific exploration and expand the cis-lunar economy by utilizing lunar resources through public-private and international partnerships. Over the next decades, a lunar spaceport will need to be established to provide the services and facilities that are necessary to achieve this goal. Robotic construction technologies using in-situ materials must be developed to build up enabling infrastructure such as launch/landing pads, blast protection, power/communications infrastructure, improved roads, improved operational surfaces, and radiation protection shelters. Kennedy Space Center’s Granular Mechanics and Regolith Operations laboratory at Swamp Works has partnered with SpaceFactory and LERA Consulting Structural Engineers to develop the architectural and structural design of an unpressurized lunar shelter. The shelter, called Lunar Infrastructure Asset (LINA), is designed to support 2.3 m of regolith overburden to protect astronauts and surface assets from radiation, meteoroid impact, thermal gradients/cycling, and to withstand moonquakes. LINA’s structural design criteria and the resulting structure design are detailed in separate papers. A Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF) construction process using regolith polymer composites has been developed and is detailed in a separate publication. This paper presents material formulations and selection rationale for each of the composite components that were examined. Formulations include 70:30, 80:20, and 85:15 wt.% mixture ratios of lunar mare simulant Black Point-1 (BP-1): Polylactic Acid (PLA), 80:20 Lunar Highlands Simulant-1 (LHS-1): PLA and an 80:20 BP-1: PLA formulation with a flow enhancer additive. Test samples were printed in simulated lunar dirty thermal vacuum conditions (-190 °C, 10-3 torr). A series of tests were performed on each formulation to characterize the achieved mixture ratio, mechanical strength properties, off-gassing products during vacuum printing, and porosity and density of printed products. The LHS-1: PLA formulation yielded an advantageous combination of properties and was used in a final test that additively constructed a sub-scaled LINA on regolith simulant in dirty vacuum conditions. The materials and construction process presented in this paper are considered to be at Technology Readiness Level (TRL) 5 with additional testing necessary to characterize long term lunar environmental exposure effects.

lunar infrastructure↗
NASA NTRS2024

System Modeling of a Lunar Molten Regolith Electrolysis Plant

In-Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU) is the process of extracting local resources to produce commodities for propulsion, life support systems, and off-planet construction rather than transporting consumables from Earth. Molten Regolith Electrolysis (MRE) is a novel ISRU method of extracting oxygen gas and metal alloy from lunar regolith. The MRE process involves placing lunar regolith between two electrodes, through which current is passed, to melt the regolith and reduce the metal oxide constituents by direct electrolysis (e.g. FeO, SiO 2 , MgO, Al 2 O 3 ) into oxygen gas and metal alloys. The oxygen is liquefied and used as propellant for landers, while the metals (e.g. Ferro-alloys) are further processed and used in structural building materials and parts manufacturing. A system model was developed that accounted for the major processes of an MRE plant (from excavation of raw materials to storage of products) to assess the feasibility of a lunar MRE plant. The S ystem Engineering and Integration ( S E&I) I SRU M odeling and A nalysis (SIMA) team utilized its previously documented system sizing model, the Mission Analysis and Integration Tool (MAIT) as framework of the system model. MAIT uses MATLAB/Simulink to integrate subsystem models into a complete system model of the MRE plant. Total mass, volume, and power requirements were computed for numerous iterations of a MRE plant.

In-Situ Resource Utilization↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

From Regolith to Living Off the Land: Formulating a Data Model to Catalog Lunar Construction Materials

Artemis Program objectives for sustainable, long-term presence on the Moon and more distant planetary surfaces will require learning to “Live off the Land”, relying on in-situ resource utilization to produce infrastructure and building materials from lunar regolith, icy subsurface deposits, and residual waste materials. Meeting demand for consumables while scaling development with resources found within the landing zone will require detailed data on the geology and environment of the lunar surface. Lunar infrastructure development will generate vast amounts of new engineering data regarding availability of processed feedstocks and their performance in building materials. Lunar engineering data accessible to program partners, research institutions and industry may help situate processes and specifications within the in-situ GIS context. Lunar missions to date have generated geological and ice favorability maps of the lunar surface, and recent technology studies have tested automated construction systems and novel material formulations using regolith simulants and binders. Current discussions focus on identifying key feedstocks, quantities required for nominal mission scenarios and infrastructure plans, and mapping the value chain from regolith to feedstock to consumables and construction materials.

lunar construction↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

From Regolith to Living Off the Land: Formulating a Data Model to Catalog Lunar Construction Materials

Artemis Program objectives for sustainable, long-term presence on the Moon and more distant planetary surfaces will require learning to “Live off the Land”, relying on in-situ resource utilization to produce infrastructure and building materials from lunar regolith, icy subsurface deposits, and residual waste materials. Meeting demand for consumables while scaling development with resources found within the landing zone will require detailed data on the geology and environment of the lunar surface. Lunar infrastructure development will generate vast amounts of new engineering data regarding availability of processed feedstocks and their performance in building materials. Lunar engineering data accessible to program partners, research institutions and industry may help situate processes and specifications within the in-situ GIS context. Lunar missions to date have generated geological and ice favorability maps of the lunar surface, and recent technology studies have tested automated construction systems and novel material formulations using regolith simulants and binders. Current discussions focus on identifying key feedstocks, quantities required for nominal mission scenarios and infrastructure plans, and mapping the value chain from regolith to feedstock to consumables and construction materials.

lunar construction↗
NASA NTRS1973

Petrology of Luna 20 regolith from the lunar highlands.

The Luna 20 regolith sample contains crystalline lithic fragments of mare basalt, the anorthosite-norite-troctolite group, and feldspathic basalt. Discrete mineral fragments and mineral fragments in regolith breccias can generally be assigned, based on chemical criteria, to one or the other of the first two rock types. A complex history is indicated for the regolith fragments involving repeated metamorphism and melting of the highlands due to impact events. The glass fragments and the feldspathic basalts probably are the result of this melting and their composition may be representative of a large portion of the regolith at this site.

Crawford, M. L.↗
NASA NTRS1973

Monte Carlo calculations of lunar regolith thickness distributions.

It is pointed out that none of the existing models of lunar regolith evolution take into account the relationship between regolith thickness, crater shape, and volume of debris ejected. The results of a Monte Carlo computer simulation of regolith evolution are presented. The simulation was designed to consider the full effect of the buffering regolith through calculation of the amount of debris produced by any given crater as a function of the amount of debris present at the site of the crater at the time of crater formation. The method is essentially an improved version of the Oberbeck and Quaide (1968) model.

Oberbeck, V. R.↗
NASA NTRS1974

Morphometric characteristics of particles of regolith returned by Luna 16 automatic station

A study was made of the shape of regolith particles in the 0.5 to 1.0 mm fraction; two parameters were calculated for this fraction: (1) Sphericity -- the ratio of the projection area of a particle to the area of the minimum circumscribed circle; and (2) the ratio of the perimeter of the projection of the particle to the perimeter of a circle having the same width. For comparison, this technique was used in studying geometrical figures and terrestrial formations: sands, slags of present day volcanoes, and crushed basalt. It was established that regolith particles are shaped from the following groups: spherules; breccias and fragments; slags and sinters. Regolith differs sharply from ordinary homogeneous terrestrial formations in the diversity of particle shapes, associated with their polygenicity. Fragments of crushed basalt are less regular than fragments of basalt from regolith.

Florenskiy, P. V.↗
NASA NTRS1974

Mossbauer spectroscopic study of Luna 16 lunar regolith

Samples of bulk fractions of lunar regolith from the surface layer A and the deep layer V were measured by Mossbauer spectroscopy with the FE57 nucleus. Metallic iron, ilmenite, olivine, pyroxene (mainly augite), and glasses were found. The iron distribution by mineral phases indicates that Luna 16 regolith differs from Apollo 11 regolith by a lower ilmenite content and a greater amount of olivine, and differs from Apollo 12 regolith by somewhat more olivine. No appreciable amount of iron was found in the trivalent state.

Malysheva, T. V.↗
NASA NTRS1974

Genesis of lunar regolith

From comparing the mineral and chemical composition of regoliths with the compositions of primary magmatic lunar rocks, it is shown that mare regolith is enriched in aluminum and depleted in iron, titanium, and chromium. This effect cannot be accounted for only by the admixture of highland anorthositic material. The entire array of geochemical data points to the considerable role of depth-wise differentiation of the magmatic material in forming the composition of the primary lunar rocks and, naturally, the composition of the regolith. During regolith formation, processes of the effervescing of magma as it outflowed at the lunar surface were of primary importance. Impacts by micrometeorites represent another important factor.

Vinogradov, A. P.↗
NASA NTRS1974

Absolute age of lunar regolith material from the Sea of Fertility

By averaging the absolute age of lunar regolith materials from the Sea of Fertility for the fine regolith fraction from the core zone V, an age of 4.65 10 to the 9th power + 0.4 10 to the 9th power years was obtained, employing as the primordial Sr-87/Sr-86 ratio 0.69884 (ADOR). Also close to this age value is the age estimate based on the Pb-207/Pb-206 ratio. Using the value 0.69898 (BABI) as a primordial Sr-87/Sr-86 ratio reduces the calculated age of the fine regolith fraction to 4.25 X 10 to the 9th power years. The fine fraction of lunar regolith from the Sea of Fertility is also characterized by a minimum addition of radiogenic Sr-87, a minimum Rb/Sr ratio, and a maximum K/Rb ratio compared with analogous lunar material from other points.

Vinogradov, A. P.↗
NASA NTRS1975

Some correlation of rock exposure ages and regolith dynamics

Exposure age information on lunar rocks and regolith turnover rates are correlated. If plotted in a cumulative fashion, the distribution of spallogenic noble-gas exposure ages is remarkably parallel to the rate at which various fractions of the regolith surface are cratered and/or excavated. It appears that the rate at which lunar rocks are excavated from within the regolith is strongly controlled by the impact environment. Some suggestions for future refinement of regolith dynamics are presented.

Horz, F.↗
NASA NTRS1983

Regolith breccia Allan Hills A81005 - Evidence of lunar origin, and petrography of pristine and nonpristine clasts

It is shown that the ratios of MnO/FeO in pyroxene, texture (abundant brown and swirly glass, which are typical of lunar regolith breccias) and overall composition (approximately 75 percent plagioclase) indicate a lunar origin for the regolith breccia Allan Hills A81005, presumably from an unsampled region of the moon. The rock is found to differ in detail from other regolith samples; for example, it has exceptionally low contents of Na and KREEP. In addition, a pristine clast is found to contain exceptionally coarse augite in comparison with similar Apollo samples. It is found that ALHA81005 is not perceptibly more shocked than typical Apollo regolith breccias. It is concluded that the discovery of this rock on earth strengthens the suggestion that SNC achondrites were derived by impact ejection from Mars.

Warren, P. H.↗
NASA NTRS1984

Grain size evolution and fractionation trends in an experimental regolith

The communication of blocky planetary surfaces into fine-grained regoliths was simulated by impacting a fragmental gabbro target 200 times with stainless steel projectiles. It is found that the comminution efficiency of the surfaces changes with time, being highest in the early stages of regolith formation and decreasing gradually. The relationship between mean grain size and cumulative energy is not linear. Individual, fine-grained regolith components can be generated very early from relatively large progenitor fragments without going through intermediate-size fractions. Impact comminution is capable of producing fractionated fines as postulated by Papike et al. (1982). The role of grain-size selective, lateral transport to explain the fractionated nature of lunar regolith fines may have been overestimated in the past.

Horz, F.↗
NASA NTRS1985

Chemical components of the Apollo 15 regolith

The lunar regolith is a complex mixture of many components. Compositional data is used to identify and estimate the relative importance of the various chemical components of the regolith. The results and conclusions of four methods that were applied to Apollo 15 regolith data were reviewed to determine the important chemical components: graphical techniques, analysis of individual soil particles, factor analysis, and multicomponent mixing models. This synthesis relies heavily on data and conclusions from the literature as well as new analyses on 28 regolith breccia samples, 28 soil samples, and 50 individual 1 to 2 mm particles from soil 15272.

Korotev, R. L.↗