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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 181 records · Page 10
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2018

Magnetic Responses of Divinylbenzene-Fe{sub 3}O{sub 4} Composite Film Deposited by Free Radical Polymerization Method

The study reports some novel information on both production and characterization for the poly [DVB/Fe{sub 3}O{sub 4}] composite film deposited by free radical polymerization method. The composite film consists of a combination of organic phase and magnetite nanoparticles. The magnetization behavior of the poly [DVB/Fe{sub 3}O{sub 4}] composite film was analyzed with both vibrating sample magnetometers (VSM) and a technique of electron spin resonance (ESR). It was found that the ESR study performed at room temperature showed the poly [DVB/Fe{sub 3}O{sub 4}] composite film had strong transition of g{sub eff} ∼2.5 (254 mT) due to the Fe{sup 3+} S-state ions. This g{sub eff} value indicated that the composite film behavior was near superparamagnetism. The VSM results also supported the ESR results.

75 CONDENSED MATTER PHYSICS, SUPERCONDUCTIVITY AND↗
DOE OSTI2018

Dependence of the Magnetic Transition Temperatures T{sub N1} and T{sub N2} and Magnetization Plateau of the 2D Checkerboard Lattice Structure with the Superblock (N,N)

Magnetic properties of the 2D checkerboard lattice structure with the superblock (N,N) were studied using Monte Carlo simulation based on the Ising model. Thermal magnetization and magnetic susceptibility of 2D checkerboard lattice with several superblocks are given. Two magnetic anomalies at collinear-to-spiral transition temperature t{sub C1} and transition temperature t{sub C2}have been determined. We discuss the effect of exchange interactions and superblocks on 2D checkerboard lattice. Magnetic hysteresis cycle of 2D checkerboard lattice for several superblocks have been shown. Superparamagnetic behaviour has been observed. Magnetization plateau, visible as anomalies in magnetic hysteresis, is one of the hallmarks of frustrated magnetism.

75 CONDENSED MATTER PHYSICS, SUPERCONDUCTIVITY AND↗
DOE OSTI2018

Peculiarities of Magnetic States of Iron-Cobalt Coatings Formed on Aluminum by Plasma Electrolytic Oxidation

Ferromagnetic oxide coatings were formed on aluminum alloy by the plasma-electrolytic oxidation technique in an electrolyte with colloidal particles of iron and cobalt hydroxides. Iron and cobalt are concentrated in the coating pores as a part of nanosized crystallites. The size of individual crystallites in the pores was ∼50–100 nm. The deficit of oxygen to form oxides in crystallites shows that the metals in the crystallites are predominantly in a reduced state. It is also possible that the metal or oxide nuclei are surrounded by oxide-hydroxide shells. The coatings obtained within 5 min have a high coercive force H{sub c} = 1300 Oe. A theoretical analysis of the magnetic properties of Fe-, Co-containing coatings has been performed using the model of clusters consisting of magnetostatically interacting particles. The theoretical value of the saturation magnetization and the experimental values of the coercive force can be explained with the presence of two phases in the nanoparticles: a large antiferromagnetic or ferromagnetic (hydroxides and/or oxides of iron and cobalt) and a small superparamagnetic (iron, cobalt, magnetite, maghemite).

75 CONDENSED MATTER PHYSICS, SUPERCONDUCTIVITY AND↗
DOE OSTI2018

An Investigation on Magnetic-Interacting Fe{sub 3}O{sub 4} Nanoparticles Prepared by Electrochemical Synthesis Method

Naked, polyvinylchloride (PVC)-coated, and polyethylene glycol (PEG)-coated Fe{sub 3}O{sub 4} nanoparticles (NPs) with an equivalent average particle size of 10 nm were prepared through an electrochemical synthesis method. The structural and magnetic properties were investigated systematically. The X-ray diffraction study coupled with the Rietveld refinement of XRD data showed that samples are crystallized in cubic spinel structure with space group referred to as Fd3m. The nature of DC magnetization versus field M (H) plot for sample resembles qualitatively with ferromagnetic (FM) systems. The AC-susceptibility data obtained at different frequencies confirmed the presence of a frequency-dependent freezing temperature. Based on the interparticle interaction strength and phenomenological models (Néel–Brown, Vogel–Fulcher, and critical slowing down), the magnetic dynamic behavior of nanoparticles was characterized. By fitting the experimental data with mentioned models, the possibility existence of superparamagnetic and a spin-glass state at low temperatures was proposed for the samples. Also, the obtained values from fitting performance showed a coating effect on interparticle interaction for PVC- and PEG-coated Fe{sub 3}O{sub 4} nanoparticles.

75 CONDENSED MATTER PHYSICS, SUPERCONDUCTIVITY AND↗
DOE OSTI2018

Abnormal Transport and Magnetic Properties Induced by Change of the Phase Volume Ratio for YBa{sub 2}Cu{sub 3}O{sub 7-δ}/La{sub 0.67}Sr{sub 0.33}MnO{sub 3} Hybrids

Two elaborately designed hybrids consisting of superconducting YBa{sub 2}Cu{sub 3}O{sub 7-δ} (YBCO) and ferromagnetic La{sub 0.67}Sr{sub 0.33}MnO{sub 3} (LSMO), namely 20 × (YBCO(m)/LSMO(100 − m)) are prepared on single crystal SrTiO{sub 3} (STO) by pulsed laser deposition (PLD) with 20 being repetition periods and m = 90 and 10, respectively, which represents YBCO pulse number in a period. The films show highly c-oriented and epitaxial quality, suggested by XRD 𝜃–2𝜃 scans and pole figures. The 20 × (YBCO90/LSMO10) sample with a large YBCO volume fraction exhibits the typical character of a metal superconductor at about 90 K, while its transition width reaches 9.1 K, which is nearly eight times of that of the pure YBCO film. Above the superconducting transition temperature, a superparamagnetic signal rather than ferromagnetic behavior is observed, which may be associated with a diluted system consisting of the ferromagnetic nanoparticles embedded in the superconducting films. For the hybrid with a small YBCO volume fraction, i.e., the 20 × (YBCO10/LSMO90) sample, its transport behavior at normal state is insulating, and it is found that the Mott variable range hopping conduction dominates in this insulating phase in the temperature range 70–310 K. Obviously distinguishable insulator to superconductor (IS) transition occurs at 52 K, but the superconducting diamagnetic signals are very weak in the magnetic measurements below the IS temperature. For this sample, the magnetization loop at 100 K is ferromagnetic, yet manifested by a reduced coercive field and residual magnetization as compared with a pure LSMO film. In fact, both hybrids represent two kinds of nanocomposites, i.e., superconducting nanoparticles in a ferromagnetic matrix and ferromagnetic nanoparticles in a superconducting matrix, which benefits to study interfacial interactions due to an increased interface to value ratio and reduced size effect.

75 CONDENSED MATTER PHYSICS, SUPERCONDUCTIVITY AND↗
DOE OSTI2018

Magnetic Performance and Evaluation of Radiofrequency Hyperthermia of Perovskite La{sub 1−x}Sr{sub x}MnO{sub 3}

Magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) can induce localized hyperthermia by alternating magnetic fields, in order to kill cells at tumor sites. In this study, La{sub 1−x}Sr{sub x}MnO{sub 3} nanoparticles with x = 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, and 0.5 were prepared via sol–gel technique. The synthesized nanoparticles were characterized in terms of structure, morphology, and magnetic properties with Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and vibrating sample magnetometer (VSM) studies. The average size of nanoparticles was measured to be 57.09, 30.477, 10.24, and 35.982 nm by Williamson–Hall method for x = 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, and 0.5, respectively. The absence of hysteresis in the magnetic response of nanoparticles represents the superparamagnetic behavior. Toxicity test was also performed to evaluate the toxicity concerns of the prepared nanoparticles upon entrance to the body. Furthermore, the alternating current magnetic heating characteristics of La{sub 1−x}Sr{sub x}MnO{sub 3} nanoparticles was also studied, by 1 mg/mL concentration, to test the ability of the nanoparticles as magnetic hyperthermia treatment agents. The magnetothermia were measured in an RF magnetic field of 88 Oe and 430 kHz. The present work reveals that LSMO nanoparticles possess the biocompatible properties for biomedical applications and can provide the required heat at appropriate time.

75 CONDENSED MATTER PHYSICS, SUPERCONDUCTIVITY AND↗
DOE OSTI2018

Synthesis, Spectroscopy, and Magnetic Characterizations of PVP-Assisted Nanoscale Particle

Inverse spinel ferrite of nonmagnetic metal-doped ferro-ferric oxide was synthesized by co-precipitation technique, and its characterizations have been performed by XRD, FTIR, TEM, EDX, VSM, and EPR. XRD figures show the prepared samples in their cubic phase and that their crystallite faces vary from 5.57 to 18.47 nm. FTIR spectra of the as-synthesized samples were performed in the range of 400 and 4000 cm{sup −1} and annealed at 600 {sup ∘}C. The TEM revealed that the syllable construction of the nanoscale particles was agglomerated in their crystalline sample. From VSM study, the sample obtained has a doublet pattern, and ferromagnetic performance was observed from the samples. From EPR spectra, the line shape and the g values obtained for the samples conformed to superparamagnetic resonance due to Mg{sup + 2} ions with a stoichiometric composition. These typical magnetic hypnotic specifications are used for various sensing applications.

75 CONDENSED MATTER PHYSICS, SUPERCONDUCTIVITY AND↗
DOE OSTI2018

An Ising Spin-2 Model on Generalized Recursive Lattice: a Monte Carlo Study

The magnetic properties of Ising spin-2 model on recursive p-polygonal structures are studied using Monte Carlo simulations. The thermal magnetization and magnetic susceptibility of recursive 1-, 2-, 3-, and 4-polygonal structures have been terminated. The variation of magnetization and magnetic susceptibility of recursive 2-polygonal structures for several external magnetic field and the variation of magnetization and magnetic susceptibility versus the crystal field and temperatures of recursive 1-, 2-, 3-, and 4-polygonal structures are given. Finally, the magnetic hysteresis cycle of recursive 1-, 2-, 3-, and 4-polygonal structures are obtained and for different temperatures with 2-polygonal structures. It is shown that the reduced transition temperature increases with increasing the p-polygonal structures and decreases with increasing the absolute value of crystal field. The magnetic coercive field increases with increasing the p-polygonal structures and decreases with increasing the temperature values. The superparamagnetism behavior is observed in our system at around reduced transition temperature.

75 CONDENSED MATTER PHYSICS, SUPERCONDUCTIVITY AND↗
DOE OSTI2018

The Effect of Folic Acid- and Caffeic Acid-Functionalized SPION on Different Cancer Cell Lines

In this study, caffeic acid (CFA)- and folic acid (FA)-conjugated superparamagnetic iron oxide bio-nanocomposite (SPION@PEG-FA-@CFA) was prepared and its cytotoxic and apoptotic effects against murine fibroblast (L929), glioblastoma (U87), adenocarcinoma, human breast cancer (MCF-7), epithelioid cervix carcinoma (HeLa), and lung carcinoma (A549) have been determined. A real-time cell analyzer system (RTCA) for cytotoxicity, annexin assay and TUNEL, caspase 3/7 expression level, and caspase 3/7 activities for apoptosis were used. The RTCA showed that the cytotoxic effects of the bio-nanocomposite were higher in U87, MCF-7, and HeLa cells (which are folic acid-positive cells (FAR (+))). TUNEL, annexin, and caspase assay results indicated that the bio-nanocomposite caused apoptotic and necrotic impacts on cells. Necrotic and apoptotic cell ratios in FAR-positive cells (L929 and A549) were lesser than those in U87, MCF-7, and HeLa cells (FAR (+)). Therefore, the obtained results showed that the bio-nanocomposite can be used as a nano-medicine for biomedical application (cancer treatments). Moreover, this work can also be useful for designing other functionalized materials which could act as biomaterial. This study will be also informative for the researchers to design novel materials for biomedical applications.

60 APPLIED LIFE SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2019

Magnetic and Structural Properties of Novel Neodymium-Tin Spinel Ferrite Nanoparticles

Novel spinel neodymium-tin ferrite nanoparticles (Nd{sub 0.5}Sn{sub 0.5}Fe{sub 2}O{sub 4}) have been synthesized by the coprecipitation method; x-ray diffraction (XRD), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and superconducting quantum interference device magnetometer (SQUID) techniques were used to characterize the crystal structure, morphology, and magnetic properties. The spinel structure of a single phase is obtained according to XRD results. From TEM characterization results, we obtained a spherical morphology with an average of 13 nm. Magnetic measurement indicates that the nanoparticles have a superparamagnetic phase with a corresponding blocking temperature (T{sub B}) of about 360 K. These new nanomaterials can potentially be used in nanoelectronic devices, magnetic sensors, and hyperthermia application.

77 NANOSCIENCE AND NANOTECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2018

Structure and Magnetization of Polycrystalline La{sub 0.66}Ca{sub 0.33}MnO{sub 3} and La{sub 0.66}Ba{sub 0.33}MnO{sub 3} Films Prepared Using Sol-Gel Technique

The structure and static magnetization of polycrystalline La{sub 0.66}Ca{sub 0.33}MnO{sub 3} (LCMO) and La{sub 0.66}Ba{sub 0.33}MnO{sub 3} (LBMO) films grown on glass substrate using sol-gel technique have been investigated. X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis revealed the average grain sizes of about 12 and 10 nm for granular LCMO and LBMO samples, respectively. The root mean square (RMS) surface roughness of about 100 nm has been obtained for both films by using scanning electron microscope (SEM) technique. The temperature dependences of the magnetization of LCMO and LBMO films registered in zero field cooling (ZFC) and field cooling (FC) regimes revealed a superparamagnetic state in both samples with remarkable distribution of blocking temperatures in a wide temperature interval, the average values of which have been estimated to be about 120 and 90 K for LCMO and LBMO, respectively. The average magnetic crystallite sizes obtained from the magnetizations studies coincide with the values revealed from the structural studies.

75 CONDENSED MATTER PHYSICS, SUPERCONDUCTIVITY AND↗
DOE OSTI2019

Preparation and Thermophysical Investigations of CoFe{sub 2}O{sub 4}-based Nanofluid: a Potential Heat Transfer Agent

Cobalt ferrite nanoparticles were synthesized by employing chemical co-precipitation technique. The structure, morphology, elemental composition, and magnetization studies of cobalt ferrite nanoparticles were carried by XRD, FE-SEM, EDS, and VSM techniques, respectively. Rietveld refined XRD pattern exhibited the single-phase cubic spinel structure with Fd-3m space group. FE-SEM images indicated some agglomeration of spherical grains which can be attributed to high surface energy and magnetic interactions. Presence of peaks of respective elements (Co, Fe, and O) in EDS spectrum showed formation of CoFe{sub 2}O{sub 4}. The M–H loop recorded at 300 K revealed superparamagnetic behavior and explained by fine particles size. The blocking temperature of the CoFe{sub 2}O{sub 4}nanoparticles from FC-ZFC curve was found to be 144 K. Cobalt ferrite–ethylene glycol nanofluids of various concentrations 0.0–1.0% in steps of 0.2% were prepared by ultrasonically assisted two-step technique. Thermophysical parameters such as thermal conductivity, specific heat, viscosity, and density were investigated as a function of both volume fraction and temperature. The experimental and theoretical value of each sample was correlated. The thermal conductivity was significantly enhanced with an increase in volume fraction and temperature.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2019

Effect of Ce{sup 3+} Ion on Structural and Hyperfine Interaction Studies of Co{sub 0.5}Ni{sub 0.5}Fe{sub 2−x}Ce{sub x}O{sub 4} Ferrites: Useful for Permanent Magnet Applications

Nanoparticles of Co{sub 0.5}Ni{sub 0.5}Fe{sub 2−x}Ce{sub x}O{sub 4} (where x = 0.0, 0.01, 0.015 and 0.02) ferrites are prepared by the modified solution combustion method using a mixture of fuels and are characterized to understand their structural, microstructural and magnetic properties. The X-ray diffraction is used to confirm the formation of a single-phase cubic spinel structure. The average crystallite sizes are calculated using the Scherrer formula and are found to be less than 50 nm. The microstructural features are obtained by the scanning electron microscopy, and the compositional analysis is done by using the energy-dispersive spectroscopy. The transmission electron microscopy (TEM) investigations show that the synthesized ferrites are made up of very fine spherical nanoparticles. The influence of a rare-earth element (Ce{sup 3+}) on the magnetic properties of the samples was studied using the Mössbauer spectroscopy. The Mössbauer spectroscopy reveals the formation of broadened Zeeman lines and quadrupole-split lines and the presence of the Fe{sup 3+} charge state at B sites in the samples. The quadrupole splitting shows that the orientation of the magnetic hyperfine field with respect to the principle axes of the electric field gradient was random. The magnetic hyperfine field values indicate that the A sites have more A-O-B superexchange interactions than the B sites. The coexistence of magnetic sextet and a doublet component on the room-temperature spectra suggests superparamagnetic properties of the nanoparticles. The low-temperature (15 K) Mössbauer spectroscopy explores the paramagnetic relaxation in the nanoparticles. The area under the sextet refers to Fe{sup 3+} concentrations in the tetrahedral and octahedral sites of the ferrite. This study confirms that the Ce{sup 3+} substitution of Fe{sup 3+} only for octahedron sites causes the decrease in Fe-O-Fe arrangement. The effect of Ce{sup 3+} doping on the magnetic properties of Co{sub 0.5}Ni{sub 0.5}Fe{sub 2}O{sub 4} is examined from the vibrating sample magnetometry (VSM) spectra. Saturation magnetization values are decreased initially and then increased, as result of Ce{sup 3+} doping. This can be explained by Neel’s two-sub-lattice model. Further, the value of coercivity is found to be increasing with increasing Ce{sup 3+} concentration. The obtained results of M-H loop with improved coercivity (from 851 to 1039 Oe) by Ce{sup 3+} doping of Co{sub 0.5}Ni{sub 0.5}Fe{sub 2}O{sub 4} demonstrate the usefulness for permanent magnet applications.

75 CONDENSED MATTER PHYSICS, SUPERCONDUCTIVITY AND↗
DOE OSTI2019

Anisometric Iron Oxide-Based Nanoparticles and Sols Based on Them: Preparation and Properties

We have synthesized magnetic powders of the magnetite-maghemite series by the chemical reaction of the FeSO{sub 4} iron salt and the natural arabinogalactan polysaccharide. These particles with a high magnetization value (∼ 300 Gs) represent a mixture of spherical particles and nanorods. Particles of a spherical shape (diameter of ∼ 5–6 nm) show a superparamagnetic behavior at room temperature, while rods with a diameter of ∼ 5 nm and a length of 30 nm are magnetic. We have prepared sol samples based on the nanoparticle aqueous solution of arabinogalactan. Our results on the magnetism of the circular dichroism (MCD) on sol are consistent with the of Mössbauer spectroscopy data.

77 NANOSCIENCE AND NANOTECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2018

A Review on Iron Oxide Nanoparticles and Their Biomedical Applications

The iron oxide nanoparticles have a great attraction in biomedical applications due to their non-toxic role in the biological systems. The iron oxide nanoparticles have both magnetic behaviour and semiconductor property which lead to multifunctional biomedical applications. The iron oxide nanoparticles used in biomedical fields such as antibacterial, antifungal and anticancer were reviewed. The uses of hematite (α-Fe{sub 2}O{sub 3}), maghemite (γ-Fe{sub 2}O{sub 3}) and magnetite (Fe{sub 3}O{sub 4}) nanoparticles, for an inhibition time in biological activities, are listed in this work. Also, this review explains the use of iron oxide nanoparticles in the biomedical fields with particular attention to the application of hematite and superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles. In this review, analysis reveals that the role of iron oxide in biological activity is good due to its biocompatibility, biodegradability, ease of synthesis and different magnetic behaviours. The change of properties of iron oxide nanoparticles such as particle size, morphology, surface, agglomeration and electronic properties has specific impact in biomedical application. The review mainly focused in and discussed about antibacterial, anticancer, bone marrow and cell labelling activities. From this review work, the iron oxide nanoparticle may be specialised in particular bacterial and cancer treatments. Also discussed are the iron oxide nanoparticle-specific biomedical applications like human placenta, insulin and retinal locus treatments.

60 APPLIED LIFE SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2019

Influence of Ce{sup 3+} Ion Doping on Structural and Magnetic Properties of Magnesium Nanoferrite

Pure and rare earth ion Ce{sup 3+}-doped magnesium nanoferrite magnetic particles, i.e., MgFe{sub 2}O{sub 4} and MgCe{sub x}Fe{sub 2−x}O{sub 4} (x = 0.0, 0.025, 0.05, 0.075, and 0.1) were successfully fabricated using sol-gel technique, and qualitative studies were carried out using X-ray diffractometer (XRD), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), high-resolution field-emission scanning electron microscopy (HRFESEM) equipped with energy-dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), vibrating sample magnetometer (VSM), and electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) techniques. X-ray diffraction analysis confirmed the crystalline phase of the synthesized samples with no extra phase. The crystallite size obtained from W-H plots follow the same trend as calculated using Scherrer method, and the strain decreases with increasing Ce{sup 3+} ion concentration indicating a lesser number of deformities. FTIR spectra revealed the shifting of lower-frequency band to the higher side with the larger radii Ce{sup 3+} ions. HRFESEM images reveal the reduction in stress on doping. No additional impurities are observed in synthesized samples as is confirmed by EDS analysis. The average particle size obtained by TEM are in agreement with XRD analysis. EPR studies showed an increase in g value and line width with doping. Magnetic measurements carried out at room temperature reveals the value of magnetization initially decreases up to x = 0.05 and afterwards increases with the addition of Ce{sup 3+} ions. These properties reveal superparamagnetic nature of cerium-doped magnesium nanoparticles and can be suitable for catalyst and humidity sensors.

77 NANOSCIENCE AND NANOTECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2019

Magnetic Properties of Mn-Substituted Zn–Mg- and Zn–Co-Nanosized Compounds

Mn-substituted Zn–Mg and Zn–Co with chemical formula Mn{sub 0.3}Mg{sub 0.2}TM{sub 0.5}Fe{sub 2}O{sub 4} (TM = Zn or Co) fine powders have been synthesized by glycol-thermal process. XRD results reveal the formation of a cubic phase without any impurity phases. TEM images show nearly spherical particles with fairly distributed particles with an average crystallite size of about 14 nm. {sup 57}Fe Mössbauer spectral studies show well-resolved magnetic splitting in the Mn–Mg–Co oxide due to stronger superexchange interactions. FC and ZFC magnetization data revealed the superparamagnetic nature of the compounds investigated. Mn–Mg–Zn nanoparticles are blocked at about 206 K while the maximum blocking temperature of Mn–Mg–Co-nanosized oxide is above 300 K. These differences were discussed on the basis of Stoner-Wohlfath relation T{sub B} = KV /25k{sub B}.

77 NANOSCIENCE AND NANOTECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2019

Effect of Zn, Ga and Gd Doping on Structural and Magnetic Properties of Nanonickel Ferrite Prepared by Two Different Methods

Zn/Ga/Gd-substituted NiFe{sub 2}O{sub 4} was formed by solid state reaction and citrate methods. The influence of substitutions on phase formation, the strain, crystallize size, cations distribution and magnetic properties have been examined by X-ray diffraction, Mössbauer effect spectrometer, Fourier-transform infrared, and vibrating sample magnetometer. Zn/Ga/Gd substituted NiFe{sub 2}O{sub 4} samples prepared by solid state method showed that as gadolinium introduced into the system, a second phase was formed with a small percentage while samples prepared by citrate method exhibited a single phase. The distributions of different cations between different sites were determined by both Mössbauer effect spectroscopy, modified Bertaut and Rietveld analysis. Mössbauer technique at room temperature showed that samples synthesized by the ceramic method have a magnetic order while samples prepared by citrate method have a superparamagnetic nature. The canting angle between magnetic ions was increased by increased the amount of Zn in samples prepared by both methods.

75 CONDENSED MATTER PHYSICS, SUPERCONDUCTIVITY AND↗