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We correct spectra of Yogi to remove diffuse illumination and show that the part of Yogi facing the wind is less red than other faces of the rock. Our method eliminates ambiguity in interpreting spectra obtained under Mars illumination conditions. Additional information is contained in the original extended abstract.
The current scenario for gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) involves internal shocks for the prompt GRB emission phase and external shocks for the afterglow phase. Assuming optically thin synchrotron emission from isotropically distributed energetic shocked electrons, GRB spectra observed with a low-energy power-law spectral index greater than -2/3 (for positive photon number indices E(exp alpha) indicate a problem with this model. For spectra that do not violate this condition, additional tests of the shock model can be made by comparing the low- and high-energy spectral indices, on the basis of the model's assertion that synchrotron emission from a single power-law distribution of electrons is responsible for both the low-energy and the high-energy power-law portions of the spectra. We find in most cases that the inferred relationship between the two spectral indices of observed GRB spectra is inconsistent with the constraints from the simple optically thin synchrotron shock emission model. In this sense, the prompt burst phase is different from the afterglow phase, and this difference may be related to anisotropic distributions of particles or to their continual acceleration in shocks during the prompt phase.
The character of force and strain measurement testing at LaRC is such that the types of strain gauge installations, the materials upon which the strain gauges are applied, and the test environments encountered, require many varied approaches. In 1997, a NASA Technical Memorandum (NASA TM 110327) was generated to provide the strain gauge application specialist with a listing of recommended procedures for strain gauging various transducers and test articles at LaRC. The technical memorandum offered here is an effort to keep the strain gauge user informed of new technological enhancements in strain-gauging methodology while preserving the strain-gauging guidelines set forth in the 1997 TM. This document provides detailed recommendations for strain gauging LaRC-designed balances and custom transducers, composite materials, cryogenic and high-temperature test articles, and selected non-typical or unique materials or test conditions. Additionally, one section offers details for installing Bragg-Grating type fiber-optic strain sensors for non-typical test scenarios.
As the use of advanced composite materials continues to increase in the aerospace community, the need for a quantitative, rapid, in situ inspection technology has become a critical concern throughout the industry. In many applications it is necessary to monitor changes in these materials over an extended period of time to determine the effects of various load conditions. Additionally, the detection and characterization of defects such as delaminations, is of great concern. This paper will present the application of infrared thermography to characterize various composite materials and show the advantages of different heat source types. Finally, various analysis methodologies used for quantitative material property characterization will be discussed.
The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) approached NASA to evaluate vehicle rollover resistance using the High Capacity Centrifuge Facility. Testing was planned for six different sport utility vehicles. Previous methods for simulating the rollover conditions were considered to be not indicative of the true driving conditions. A more realistic gradual application of side loading could be achieved by using a centrifuge facility. A unique load measuring lower support system was designed to measure tire loading on the inboard tires and to indicate tire liftoff. This lower support system was designed to more closely emulate the actual rollover conditions. Additional design features were provided to mitigate potential safety hazards.
This research is part of a multiyear experimental investigation to understand the nature and evolution brines and evaporates on Mars. The spectacular discoveries of the MER rovers, particularly those of Opportunity at Meridiani, both illustrate the relevance, as well as guide the future direction, of this work. Here we report the initial results from our just-completed and tested evaporites apparatus, using a synthetic brine analog to our brine experiment simulating a modern Mars environment in which the brine was subjected to rapid evaporation under modern Martian conditions. Additional information is included in the original extended abstract.
The Direct Connect Combustor Durability Rig (DCR) will provide NASA a flexible and efficient test bed to demonstrate the durability of actively cooled scramjet engine structure, static and dynamic sealing technologies, and thermal management techniques. The DCR shall be hydrogen fueled and cooled, and test hydrogen coolded structural panels at Mach 5 and 7. Actively cooled Haynes 188 superalloy DCR structural panels exposed to the combustion environment shall have electrodischarge machined (EDM) internal cooling holes with flowing liquid hydrogen. Hydrogen combustion could therefore produce severe thermal conditions that could challenge low cycle fatigue durability of this material. The objective of this study was to assess low cycle fatigue capability of Haynes 188 for DCR application. Tests were performed at 25 and 650 C, in hydrogen and helium environments, using specimens with low stress ground (LSG) and electro-discharge machined (EDM) surface finish. Initial fatigue tests in helium and hydrogen indicate the low cycle fatigue life capability of Haynes 188 in hydrogen appears quite satisfactory for the DCR application. Fatigue capability did not decrease with increasing test temperature. Fatigue capability also did not decrease with EDM surface finish. Failure evaluations indicate retention of ductility in all conditions. Additional tests are planned to reconfirm these positive trends.
At the wake of the Columbia (STS-107) accident it was decided to remove the Protuberance Aerodynamic Load (PAL) Ramp that was originally intended to protect various protuberances outside of the Space Shuttle External Tank from high buffet load induced by cross-flows at transonic speed. In order to establish the buffet load without the PAL ramp, a wind tunnel test was conducted where segments of the protuberances were instrumented with dynamic pressure transducers; and power-spectra of sectional lift and drag forces at various span-wise locations between two adjacent support brackets were measured under different cross flow angles, Mach number and other conditions. Additionally, frequency-dependent spatial correlations between the sectional forces were also established. The sectional forces were then adjusted by the correlation length to establish span-averaged spectra of normal and lateral forces that can be suitably "added" to various other unsteady forces encountered by the protuberance. This paper describes the methodology used for calculating the correlation-adjusted power spectrum of the buffet load. A second part of the paper describes wind-tunnel results on the difference in the buffet load on the protuberances with and without the PAL ramp. In general when the ramp height is the same as that of the protuberance height, such as that found on the liquid Oxygen part of the tank, the ramp is found to cause significant reduction of the unsteady aerodynamic load. However, on the liquid Hydrogen part of the tank, where the Oxygen feed-line is far larger in diameter than the height of the PAL ramp, little protection is found to be available to all but the Cable Tray.
At the wake of the Columbia (STS-107) accident it was decided to remove the Protuberance Aerodynamic Load (PAL) Ramp that was originally intended to protect various protuberances outside of the Space Shuttle External Tank from high buffet load induced by cross-flows at transonic speed. In order to establish the buffet load without the PAL ramp, a wind tunnel test was conducted where segments of the protuberances were instrumented with dynamic pressure transducers; and power-spectra of sectional lift and drag forces at various span-wise locations between two adjacent support brackets were measured under different cross flow angles, Mach number and other conditions. Additionally, frequency-dependent spatial correlations between the sectional forces were also established. The sectional forces were then adjusted by the correlation length to establish span-averaged spectra of normal and lateral forces that can be suitably "added" to various other unsteady forces encountered by the protuberance. This paper describes the methodology used for calculating the correlation-adjusted power spectrum of the buffet load. A second part of the paper describes wind-tunnel results on the difference in the buffet load on the protuberances with and without the PAL ramp. In general when the ramp height is the same as that of the protuberance height, such as that found on the liquid Oxygen part of the tank, the ramp is found to cause significant reduction of the unsteady aerodynamic load. However, on the liquid Hydrogen part of the tank, where the Oxygen feed-line is far larger in diameter than the height of the PAL ramp, little protection is found to be available to all but the Cable Tray.
Experimental heat transfer and pressure measurements were obtained on a large scale film cooled turbine vane cascade. The objective was to investigate heat transfer on a commercial high pressure first stage turbine vane at near engine Mach and Reynolds number conditions. Additionally blowing ratios and coolant density were also matched. Numerical computations were made with the Glenn-HT code of the same geometry and compared with the experimental results. A transient thermochromic liquid crystal technique was used to obtain steady state heat transfer data on the mid-span geometry of an instrumented vane with 12 rows of circular and shaped film cooling holes. A mixture of SF6 and Argon gases was used for film coolant to match the coolant-to-gas density ratio of a real engine. The exit Mach number and Reynolds number were 0.725 and 2.7 million respectively. Trends from the experimental heat transfer data matched well with the computational prediction, particularly for the film cooled case.
The invention, a static phase separator (SPS), uses airflow and capillary wetting characteristics to passively separate a two-phase (liquid and air) flow. The device accommodates highly variable liquid wetting characteristics. The resultant design allows for a range of wetting properties from about 0 to over 90 advancing contact angle, with frequent complete separation of liquid from gas observed when using appropriately scaled test conditions. Additionally, the design accommodates a range of air-to-liquid flow-rate ratios from only liquid flow to over 200:1 air-to-liquid flow rate. The SPS uses a helix input section with an ice-cream-cone-shaped constant area cross section (see figure). The wedge portion of the cross section is on the outer edge of the helix, and collects the liquid via centripetal acceleration. The helix then passes into an increasing cross-sectional area vane region. The liquid in the helix wedge is directed into the top of capillary wedges in the liquid containment section. The transition from diffuser to containment section includes a 90 change in capillary pumping direction, while maintaining inertial direction. This serves to impinge the liquid into the two off-center symmetrical vanes by the airflow. Rather than the airflow serving to shear liquid away from the capillary vanes, the design allows for further penetration of the liquid into the vanes by the air shear. This is also assisted by locating the air exit ports downstream of the liquid drain port. Additionally, any droplets not contained in the capillary vanes are re-entrained downstream by a third opposing capillary vane, which directs liquid back toward the liquid drain port. Finally, the dual air exit ports serve to slow the airflow down, and to reduce the likelihood of shear. The ports are stove-piped into the cavity to form an unfriendly capillary surface for a wetting fluid to carryover. The liquid drain port is located at the start of the containment region, allowing for draining the bulk fluid in a continuous circuit. The functional operation of the SPS involves introducing liquid flow (from a human body, a syringe, or other source) to the two-phase inlet while an air fan pulls on the air exit lines. The fan is operated until the liquid is fully introduced. The system is drained by negative pressure on the liquid drain lines when the SPS containment system is full.
The influences of heat treatment and cyclic dwells on the notch fatigue resistance of powder metallurgy disk superalloys were investigated for low solvus high refractory (LSHR) and ME3 disk alloys. Disks were processed to produce material conditions with varied microstructures and associated mechanical properties. Notched specimens were first subjected to baseline dwell fatigue cycles having a dwell at maximum load, as well as tensile, stress relaxation, creep rupture, and dwell fatigue crack growth tests at 704 C. Several material heat treatments displayed a bimodal distribution of fatigue life with the lives varying by two orders-of-magnitude, while others had more consistent fatigue lives. This response was compared to other mechanical properties, in search of correlations. The wide scatter in baseline dwell fatigue life was observed only for material conditions resistant to stress relaxation. For selected materials and conditions, additional tests were then performed with the dwells shifted in part or in total to minimum tensile load. The tests performed with dwells at minimum load exhibited lower fatigue lives than max dwell tests, and also exhibited early crack initiation and a substantial increase in the number of initiation sites. These results could be explained in part by modeling evolution of peak stresses in the notch with continued dwell fatigue cycling. Fatigue-environment interactions were determined to limit life for the fatigue cycles with dwells.
Decrements in balance control have been documented in astronauts after space flight. Reliable measures of balance control are needed for use in postflight field tests at remote landing sites. Diffusion analysis (DA) is a statistical mechanical tool that shows the average difference of the dependent variable on varying time scales. These techniques have been shown to measure differences in open-loop and closed-loop postural control in astronauts and elderly subjects. The goal of this study was to investigate the reliability of these measures of balance control. Eleven subjects were tested using the Clinical Test of Sensory Interaction on Balance: the subject stood with feet together and arms crossed on a stable or compliant surface, with eyes open or closed and with or without head movements in the pitch or yaw plane. Subjects were instrumented with inertial motion sensors attached to their trunk segment. The DA curves for linear acceleration measures were characterized by linear fits measuring open- (Ds) and closed-loop (Dl) control, and their intersection point (X-int, Y-int). Ds and Y-int showed significant differences between the test conditions. Additionally, Ds was correlated with the root mean square (RMS) of the signal, indicating that RMS was dominated by open-loop events (< 0.5 seconds). The Y-int was found to be correlated with the average linear velocity of trunk movements. Thus DA measures could be applied to derive reliable metrics of balance stability during field tests.
In this study, three different mineral acids were substituted for sulfuric acid (H2SO4) in the urine stabilizer solution to eliminate the excess of sulfate ions in pretreated urine and assess the impact on maximum water recovery to avoid precipitation of minerals during distillation. The study evaluated replacing 98% sulfuric acid with 85% phosphoric acid (H3PO4), 37% hydrochloric acid (HCl), or 70% nitric acid (HNO3). The effect of lowering the oxidizer concentration in the pretreatment formulation also was studied. This paper summarizes the test results, defines candidate formulations for further study, and specifies the injection masses required to stabilize urine and minimize the risk of mineral precipitation during distillation. In the first test with a brine ersatz acidified with different acids, the solubility of calcium in gypsum saturated solutions was measured. The solubility of gypsum was doubled in the brines acidified with the alternative acids compared to sulfuric acid. In a second series of tests, the alternative acid pretreatment concentrations were effective at preventing precipitation of gypsum and other minerals up to 85% water recovery from 95th-percentile pretreated, augmented urine. Based on test results, phosphoric acid is recommended as the safest alternative to sulfuric acid. It also is recommended that the injected mass concentration of chromium trioxide solution be reduced by 75% to minimize liquid resupply mass by about 50%, reduce toxicity of brines, and reduce the concentration of organic acids in distillate. The new stabilizer solution formulations and required doses to stabilize urine and prevent precipitation of minerals up to 85% water recovery are given. The formulations in this study were tested on a limited number of artificially augmented urine batches collected from employees at the Johnson Space Center (JSC). This study successfully demonstrated that the desired physical and chemical stability of pretreated urine and brines can be achieved using alternate pretreatment formulations under laboratory conditions. Additional testing and hazard assessments will be required to determine the feasibility of utilizing the proposed urine pretreatment formulations on ISS.
Utilizing carbon dioxide to produce water and hence oxygen is critical for sustained manned missions in space, and to support both NASA's cabin Atmosphere Revitalization System (ARS) and In-Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU) concepts. For long term missions beyond low Earth orbit, where resupply is significantly more difficult and costly, open loop ARS, like Sabatier, consume inputs such as hydrogen. The Bosch process, on the other hand, has the potential to achieve complete loop closure and is hence a preferred choice. However, current single stage Bosch reactor designs suffer from a large recycle penalty due to slow reaction rates and the inherent limitation in approaching thermodynamic equilibrium. Developmental efforts are seeking to improve upon the efficiency (hence reducing the recycle penalty) of current single stage Bosch reactors which employ traditional steel wool catalysts. Precision Combustion, Inc. (PCI), with support from NASA, has investigated the potential for utilizing catalysts supported over short-contact time Microlith substrates for the Bosch reaction to achieve faster reaction rates, higher conversions, and a reduced recycle flows. Proof-of-concept testing was accomplished for a staged Bosch process by splitting the chemistry in two separate reactors, first being the reverse water-gas-shift (RWGS) and the second being the carbon formation reactor (CFR) via hydrogenation and/or Boudouard. This paper presents the results from this feasibility study at various operating conditions. Additionally, results from two 70 hour durability tests for the RWGS reactor are discussed.
The pool of three Minus Eighty Laboratory freezer for ISS (MELFI) units continues providing the scientific community with robust and permanent freezer and refrigeration capabilities for life science experiments on the International Space Station (ISS). Launched in 2006, the first unit will complete, by summer 2013, seven years of continuous operations without intervention on the internal Nitrogen gas cycle, while all necessary hardware and operations were initially planned for preventive maintenance every two years. This unit has demonstrated outstanding performance on orbit and proved the technical decisions made during the development program. Current utilization of MELFI units in the ISS is taking full benefit of the initial specifications, which allows for wide adaptations to cope with the mission scenario imposed by the life extension in orbit. The two other MELFI units, launched respectively in 2008 and 2009, are supporting the first unit providing additional conditioned volume necessary for the science on board, and also for preparing thermal mass used to protect the samples on their way down to earth. The MELFI pool is outfitted with all supporting hardware to allow for extended operation on orbit including preventive and corrective maintenance. The internal components were designed to allow for easy on board maintenance. Spare equipment was installed in the MELFI rack on ISS and specific maintenance means were developed which required crew training before the cold gas cycle could be accessed. The paper will present first how the design choices made for the initial missions are identifying features necessary for extended duration missions, and will then give highlights on the utilization of the MELFI refrigeration pool during the recent years in ISS.
A&P Technology has developed a braided material approach for fabricating lightweight, high-strength hybrid gears for aerospace drive systems. The conventional metallic web was replaced with a composite element made from A&P's quasi-isotropic braid. The 0deg, plus or minus 60 deg braid architecture was chosen so that inplane stiffness properties and strength would be nearly equal in all directions. The test results from the Phase I Small Spur Gear program demonstrated satisfactory endurance and strength while providing a 20 percent weight savings. (Greater weight savings is anticipated with structural optimization.) The hybrid gears were subjected to a proof-of-concept test of 1 billion cycles in a gearbox at 10,000 revolutions per minute and 490 in-lb torque with no detectable damage to the gears. After this test the maximum torque capability was also tested, and the static strength capability of the gears was 7x the maximum operating condition. Additional proof-of-concept tests are in progress using a higher oil temperature, and a loss-of-oil test is planned. The success of Phase I led to a Phase II program to develop, fabricate, and optimize full-scale gears, specifically Bull Gears. The design of these Bull Gears will be refined using topology optimization, and the full-scale Bull Gears will be tested in a full-scale gear rig. The testing will quantify benefits of weight savings, as well as noise and vibration reduction. The expectation is that vibration and noise will be reduced through the introduction of composite material in the vibration transmission path between the contacting gear teeth and the shaft-and-bearing system.
A&P Technology has developed a braided material approach for fabricating lightweight, high-strength hybrid gears for aerospace drive systems. The conventional metallic web was replaced with a composite element made from A&P's quasi-isotropic braid. The 0deg, +/-60deg braid architecture was chosen so that inplane stiffness properties and strength would be nearly equal in all directions. The test results from the Phase I Small Spur Gear program demonstrated satisfactory endurance and strength while providing a 20 percent weight savings. (Greater weight savings is anticipated with structural optimization.) The hybrid gears were subjected to a proof-of-concept test of 1 billion cycles in a gearbox at 10,000 revolutions per minute and 490 in-lb torque with no detectable damage to the gears. After this test the maximum torque capability was also tested, and the static strength capability of the gears was 7x the maximum operating condition. Additional proof-of-concept tests are in progress using a higher oil temperature, and a loss-of-oil test is planned. The success of Phase I led to a Phase II program to develop, fabricate, and optimize full-scale gears, specifically Bull Gears. The design of these Bull Gears will be refined using topology optimization, and the full-scale Bull Gears will be tested in a full-scale gear rig. The testing will quantify benefits of weight savings, as well as noise and vibration reduction. The expectation is that vibration and noise will be reduced through the introduction of composite material in the vibration transmission path between the contacting gear teeth and the shaft-and-bearing system.