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At least 181 records · Page 10

The Formation Mechanism of Helium-Rich Subdwarf B Stars

This program used the Far Ultraviolet Spectroscopic Explorer (FUSE) to measure the surface abundances of three helium-rich hot subdwarfs in the Galactic field, to test our hypothesis that such stars form via a late helium flash while descending the white dwarf cooling curve. If these stars form via a late He flash, the stellar envelope should be mixed with the interior, enhancing the surface carbon abundance enormously while depleting the surface hydrogen. The first observation of PG1544+488 was incomplete because detector 2 was turned off, but the repeat observations were fully successful. The observations of LB1766 had no problems and were fully successful. The observations of PG1127+019 became infeasible when FUSE lost some of its pointing control, so it was replaced with JL87, which was also observed successfully.

Luers, Jeannine N.↗

Apollo-Soyuz light-flash observations

While dark adapted, two Apollo-Soyuz astronauts saw eighty-two light flash events during a complete 51 deg orbit which passed near the north magnetic pole and through the South Atlantic Anomaly. The frequency of events at the polar parts of the orbit is 25 times that noted in equatorial latitudes and no increased frequency was noted in the South Atlantic Anomaly at the 225-km altitude. The expected flux of heavy particles at the northern and southern points is 1-2/min per eye, and the efficiency for seeing high Z-high energy (HZE) particles which were below the Cerenkov threshold is 50%.

Budinger, T. F.↗

Lightning Return-Stroke Current Waveforms Aloft, From Measured Field Change, Current, and Channel Geometry

Direct current measurements are available near the attachment point from both natural cloud-to-ground lightning and rocket-triggered lightning, but little is known about the rise time and peak amplitude of return-stroke currents aloft. We present, as functions of height, current amplitudes, rise times, and effective propagation velocities that have been estimated with a novel remote-sensing technique from data on 24 subsequent return strokes in six different lightning flashes that were triggering at the NASA Kennedy Space Center, FL, during 1987. The unique feature of this data set is the stereo pairs of still photographs, from which three-dimensional channel geometries were determined previously. This has permitted us to calculate the fine structure of the electric-field-change (E) waveforms produced by these strokes, using the current waveforms measured at the channel base together with physically reasonable assumptions about the current distributions aloft. The computed waveforms have been compared with observed E waveforms from the same strokes, and our assumptions have been adjusted to maximize agreement. In spite of the non-uniqueness of solutions derived by this technique, several conclusions seem inescapable: 1) The effective propagation speed of the current up the channel is usually significantly (but not unreasonably) faster than the two-dimensional velocity measured by a streak camera for 14 of these strokes. 2) Given the deduced propagation speed, the peak amplitude of the current waveform often must decrease dramatically with height to prevent the electric field from being over-predicted. 3) The rise time of the current wave front must always increase rapidly with height in order to keep the fine structure of the calculated field consistent with the observations.

Willett, J. C.↗

The Role of Orograph and Parallax Corrections on High Resolution Geostationary Satellite Rainfall Estimates for Flash Flood Applications

The current generation of geosynchronous satellites exhibits considerably improved capabilities in the area of resolution, gridding accuracy, and sampling frequency as compared to their predecessors. These improvements have made it possible to accurately observe the life cycle of small scale, short-live phenomenon like rapidly developing thunderstorms, at a very high spatial and temporal resolutions. While the gain in the improved resolution is not significant for synoptic scale cloud systems, it plays a major role on the computation of precipitation values for mesoscale and stonn scale systems. Two of the important factor on the accurate precision of precipitation from satellite imagery are the position of the cloud tops as viewed by the satellite and the influence of orographic effects on the distribution of precipitation. The first problem has to do with the fact that the accurate estimation of precipitation from data collected by a satellite in geosynchronous orbit requires the knowledge of the exact position of the cloud tops with respect to the ground below. This is not a problem when a cloud is located directly below the satellite; at large viewing angles the geographic coordinates on satellite images are dependent on cloud heights and distance from the sub-satellite point. The latitude and longitude coordinates for high convective cloud tops are displaced away from the sub-satellite point and may be shifted by as much as 20 Km from the sea level coordinates. The second problem has to do with the variations in rainfall distribution with elevation. Ground observations have shown that precipitation amounts tend to increase with height and that the slope of the hill or mountain that is facing the prevailing wind normally receives greater rainfall then do the lee slopes. The purpose of the study is to show the recent developments at the Office of Research and Applications (ORA) at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA/NESDIS) in Camp Springs, MD, USA, to adjust any satellite rainfall estimation technique and account for orographic and parallax corrections. Description and examples of the procedure applied to the current NOAA/NESDIS experimental satellite rainfall estimation technique for flash flood applications will be presented at the conference.

Vicente, Gilberto A.↗

Three-dimensional Hydrodynamic Simulations of Convective Nuclear Burning in Massive Stars Near Iron Core Collapse

Nonspherical structure in massive stars at the point of iron core collapse can have a qualitative impact on the properties of the ensuing core-collapse supernova explosions and the multimessenger signals they produce. Strong perturbations can aid successful explosions by strengthening turbulence in the postshock region. Here we report on a set of 4π 3D hydrodynamic simulations of O- and Si-shell burning in massive star models of varied initial masses using MESA and the FLASH simulation framework. We evolve four separate 3D models for roughly the final 10 minutes prior to and including iron core collapse. We consider initial 1D MESA models with masses of 14, 20, and 25 M ⊙ to survey a range of O/Si-shell density and compositional configurations. Further, we characterize the convective shells in our 3D models and compare them to the corresponding 1D models. In general, we find that the angle-average convective speeds in our 3D simulations near collapse are three to four times larger than the convective speeds predicted by MESA at the same epoch for our chosen mixing length parameter of α MLT = 1.5. In three of our simulations, we observe significant power in the spherical harmonic decomposition of the radial velocity field at harmonic indices of ℓ = 1–3 near collapse. Our results suggest that large-scale modes are common in massive stars near collapse and should be considered a key aspect of presupernova progenitor models.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗

Surface temperature measurements in rolling and sliding EHD contacts

In this study, moving surface temperature measurements in rolling and sliding EHD point contacts were made using an available infrared technique. Film thickness and traction have also been measured. Slide-to-roll ratios of -2 to +2 have been studied. By using a different kinematic configuration, stationary surface temperatures have also been measured. It has been shown that, while surface temperature rises in the low slip region are relatively small, stationary surface temperatures are significantly higher than the moving surface temperatures. Flash temperature theory has been extended to cover the combined rolling and sliding conditions. Correlation between the predicted and the measured values has also been performed.

Nagaraj, H. S.↗

Rate constant for the reaction of hydroxyl radical with formaldehyde over the temperature range 228-362 K

Absolute rate constants for the reaction OH ? H2CO measured over the temperature range 228-362 K using the flash photolysis-resonance fluorescence technique are given. The results are independent of variations in H2CO concentration, total pressure Ar concentration, and flash intensity (i.e., initial OH concentration). The rate constant is found to be invariant with temperature in this range, the best representation being k sub 1 = (1.05 ? or - 0.11) x 10 to the 11th power cu cm molecule(-1) s(-1) where the error is two standard deviations. This result is compared with previous absolute and relative determinations of k sub 1. The reaction is also discussed from a theoretical point of view.

Stief, L. J.↗

Ignition Characterization Test Results for the LO2/Ethanol Propellant Combination

A series of contracts were issued by the Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) un der the auspices of the Exploration Systems Mission Directorate to de velop and expand the maturity of candidate technologies considered to be important for future space exploration. One such technology was to determine the viability of incorporating non-toxic propellants for R eaction Control Subsystems (RCS). Contract NAS8-01109 was issued to A erojet to develop a dual thrust Reaction Control Engine (RCE) that ut ilized liquid oxygen and ethanol as the propellants. The dual thrust RCE incorporated a primary thrust level of 870 lbf, and a vernier thru st level of 10 - 30 lbf. The preferred RCS approach for the dual thru st RCE was to utilize pressure-fed liquid oxygen (LOX) and ethanol pr opellants; however, previous dual thrust feasibility testing incorporated GOX/Ethanol igniters as opposed to LOX/Ethanol igniters in the de sign. GOX/Ethanol was easier to ignite, but this combination had syst em design implications of providing GOX for the igniters. A LOX/Ethan ol igniter was desired; however, extensive LOX/Ethanol ignition data over the anticipated operating range for the dual thrust RCE did not e xist. Therefore, Aerojet designed and tested a workhorse LOX igniter to determine LOX/Ethanol ignition characteristics as part of a risk m itigation effort for the dual thrust RCE design. The objective of the ignition testing was to demonstrate successful ignition from GOX to LOX, encompassing potential two-phase flow conditions anticipated being present in real mission applications. A workhorse igniter was desig ned to accommodate the full LOX design flowrate, as well as a reduced GOX flowrate. It was reasoned that the initial LOX flow through the igniter would flash to GOX due to the latent heat stored in the hardwa re, causing a reduced oxygen flowrate because of a choked, or sonic, flow condition through the injection elements. As LOX flow continued, the hardware would chill-in, with the injected oxygen flow transitioning from cold GOX through two'phase flow to subcooled LOX. The Workh orse igniter was well instrumented: Pressure and temperature instrumentation permitted oxygen state points to be determined in the igniter oxidizer manifold, and gas-side igniter chamber thermocouples provide d chamber thermal profile characteristics. The cold flow chamber pres sure (Pc) for each test was determined and coupled with the igniter chamber diameter (De) to calculate the characteristic quench parameter (Pc x Dc), which was plotted as a function of core mixture ratio, MRc . Ignition limits were determined over a broad range of valve inlet conditions, and ignition was demonstrated with oxygen inlet conditions that ranged from subcooled 210 deg R LOX to 486 deg R GOX. Once ign ited at cold GOX conditions, combustion was continuous as the hardwar e chilled in and the core mixture ratio transitioned from values near 1.0 to over 12.5. Pulsing is required in typical RCS engines; therefore, the workhorse igniter was pulse tested to verify the ability to pr ovide the required ignition for a pulsing RCE. The minimum electrical pulse width (EPW) of the dual thrust RCE was 0.080 seconds. Igniter pulse tests were performed at three conditions: (1) an EPW of 0.080 se conds at 25% duty cycle for 400 pulses; (2) an EPW of 0.160 seconds a nd a 5% duty cycle for 124 pulses; (3) an EPW of 0.160 seconds and a 50% duty cycle for 380 pulses. Successful ignition of LOX/Ethanol was demonstrated over a broad range of valve inlet conditions, with the empirically determined LOX/Ethanol ignition limits extending the previous database established for GOX/Ethanol ignition limits. Although th e observed chill-in characteristics of the hardware varied significan tly with flowrate, ignition was readily achieved. Combustion was marg inal at extremely fuel-rich conditions, and it fluctuated as the oxygen passed rough the twophase flow regime during the period of hardware chill-in. Pulse testing showed good repeatability with 100 percent r e-ignition for all pulses. Certain pulse-to-pulse repeatability requirements for actual RCS operation may necessitate establishment of mini mum oxygen flow rates and engine thrust levels for satisfactory engin e performance.

Robinson, Philip J.↗

NASA Tech Briefs, May 2007

Topics include: Noise-Canceling Helmet Audio System; Program Analyzes Spacecraft/Ground Radio Links; Two-Way Communication Using RFID Equipment and Techniques; Six-Message Electromechanical Display System; Scanning Terahertz Heterodyne Imaging Systems; Master Clock and Time-Signal-Distribution System; Synchronous Phase-Resolving Flash Range Imaging; Integrated Radial Probe Transition From MMIC to Waveguide; Bar-Code System for a Microbiological Laboratory; MMIC Amplifier Produces Gain of 10 dB at 235 GHz; Mapping Nearby Terrain in 3D by Use of a Grid of Laser Spots; Digital Beam Deflectors Based Partly on Liquid Crystals; Narrow-Band WGM Optical Filters With Tunable FSRs; Better Finite-Element Analysis of Composite Shell Structures; Computing Spacecraft-Pointing Vectors for Limb Tracking; Enhanced Master Controller Unit Tester; Rover Graphical Simulator; Increasing Durability of Flame-Sprayed Strain Gauges; Multifunctional, High-Temperature Nanocomposites; Multilayer Impregnated Fibrous Thermal Insulation Tiles; Radiation-Shielding Polymer/Soil Composites; Film/Adhesive Processing Module for Fiber-Placement Processing of Composites; Fabrication of Submillimeter Axisymmetric Optical Components; Electrochemical Disposal of Hydrazines in Water; Statistical Model of Evaporating Multicomponent Fuel Drops; Resistively Heated SiC Nozzle for Generating Molecular Beams; Compact Packaging of Photonic Millimeter-Wave Receiver; Diffractive Combiner of Single-Mode Pump Laser-Diode Beams; Wide-Band, High-Quantum-Efficiency Photodetector; A Robustly Stabilizing Model Predictive Control Algorithm; Modeling Evaporation of Drops of Different Kerosenes; Development of Vapor-Phase Catalytic Ammonia Removal System; Several Developments in Space Tethers; Design Concept for a Nuclear Reactor-Powered Mars Rover; Formation-Initialization Algorithm for N Spacecraft; and DNSs of Multicomponent Gaseous and Drop-Laden Mixing Layers Achieving Transition to Turbulence.

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A ceramic/slag interface as an analog for accretion of hot refractory objects and rim formation

Refractory inclusions or Ca-Al-rich inclusions (CAI's) from carbonaceous chondrites span a wide range of bulk compositions that cannot be explained either by segregation from a gas of solar composition at different points in the condensation sequence or by fractional crystallization from a parent liquid. CAI's are commonly rimmed by Wark-Lovering (W-L) rims, a series of nearly monomineralic layers that have been a source of controversy since the variety of rim sequences occurring on different types of CAI's from Allende were described. The origin of these distinctive features has not yet been resolved, with proponents of accretion, condensation, flash heating, ablation, evaporation, etc. Rims have generated considerable interest because they potentially contain clues to conditions experienced by CAI's after the formation of the inclusion and prior to incorporation into the parent body. Ceramic bricks in contact with hot steel slag may produce reaction products in rimlike fashion similar to those found in CAI's. The similarity between the mineralogy of blast furnace slags and CAI's has long been recognized, with both containing unusual phases not found in terrestrial materials. We provide here a comparison between a ceramic brick/slag multiple-layered interface and a multiple-layered interface between a melilite-perovskite object and a melilite-spinel object in the Allende inclusion USNM 4691-1. These results have implications in interpreting the origin of rims and the textures and compositions of CAI's.

Paque, J. M.↗

The melt memory effects in polymer crystallization

This paper presents a systematic review of the literature on the melt memory effects observed in polymers, an area that has engendered considerable debate for over 50 years. Recent advances in experimental techniques have provided fresh insights into how a polymer's thermal history influences its recrystallization behavior. It has been observed that given other conditions unchanged, the crystallization temperature during recrystallization decreases with an increase in the melt temperature T s above the melting point T m until a critical melt temperature is attained. This phenomenon also extends to the half-time of crystallization and the secondary structures, such as lamellar thickness, of semi-crystalline polymers. Despite these findings, a comprehensive constitutive model that encapsulates polymer melt memory effects remains elusive. Cutting-edge instrumentation, including in situ small and wide-angle X-ray scattering, temperature-controlled Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and flash differential scanning calorimetry, have posed significant challenges to the traditional nucleation and growth models established in the 1970s. These models are foundational to our understanding of polymer crystallization, which is an integral part of polymer processing and production. In this review, the historical contours of this discourse are traced, with an examination of both the recent experimental breakthroughs and theoretical advancements pertinent to polymer melt memory effects. In conclusion, this paper delves into the prevailing theories of polymer nucleation and crystallization and engages with theoretical discussions and numerical simulations that attempt to elucidate and rationalize these melt memory phenomena.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

Space-Cabin Atmospheres: Part II - Fire and Blast Hazards. A Literature Review

The rapid evolution of aircraft and, lately, space vehicles has brought with it the ever-increasing difficulty of designing for prevention of fires and explosions. The present-day sealed cabin with its limited work space, unusual atmospheric constituents, and lack of flexibility in emergency situations has brought new and ill-defined hazards into the picture. In the past, numerous data have been compiled on the fire and explosion characteristics of all things combustible. Unfortunately, much of the material is not pertinent to the actual operational problems in space. The confusion and controversy arising from attempts to evaluate the space-cabin fire problem appear to stem from past failure to compile the scattered data and to expose it to critical review and selection. In the compilation that follows, an attempt has been made to review the best available data that was deemed actually pertinent to the present problem. The effects of unusual atmospheres have been emphasized, but, as will soon be evident, other physical parameters also play a major role in determining the nature of the problem. Chapter 1 contains a discussion of pertinent definitions and theory. This is detailed only to the point of anticipating some of the problems of interpretation that may arise in other chapters of the report. Included in this chapter is speculation on the impact of unusual environmental conditions such as aerodynamic heating, reduced gravitational acceleration, and low ambient pressures. Chapter 2 covers flammable fabrics and carbonaceous solids; Chapter 3, specific fire hazards involving flammable liquids, vapors, and gases; and Chapter 4, electrical fires. Chapter 5 covers the fire, blast, and flash hazards from meteoroid penetration; and Chapter 6, the problems of fire prevention and extinguishment in space cabins. Chapter 7 reviews the factors of fire and blast hazards in selection of a space-cabin atmosphere.

Roth, Emanuel M.↗

Ignition Characterization Tests of the LOX/Ethanol Propellant Combination

A series of contracts have been issued by the Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) to explore candidate technologies considered to be important for the Next Generation Launch Technology (NGLT) effort. One aspect of the NGLT effort is to explore the potential of incorporating non-toxic propellants for Reaction Control Subsystems (RCS). Contract NAS8-01109 has been issued to Aerojet to develop a dual thrust Reaction Control Engine (RCE) that utilizes liquid oxygen and ethanol as the propellants. The dual thrust RCE incorporates a primary thrust level of 870 lbf, and a vernier thrust level of 10 - 30 lbf. Aerojet has designed and tested a workhorse LOX igniter to determine LOX/Ethanol ignition characteristics as part of a risk mitigation effort for the dual thrust RCE design. The objective of the ignition testing was to demonstrate successfid ignition from GOX to LOX, encompassing potential two-phase flow conditions. The workhorse igniter was designed to accommodate the full LOX design flowrate, as well as a reduced GOX flowrate. It was reasoned that the initial LOX flow through the igniter would flash to GOX due to the inherent heat stored in the hardware, causing a reduced oxygen flowrate because of a choked, or sonic, flow condition through the injection elements. As LOX flow continued, the inherent heat of the test hardware would be removed and the hardware would chill-in, with the injected oxygen flow transitioning from cold GOX through two-phase flow to subcooled LOX. Pressure and temperature instrumentation permitted oxygen state points to be determined, and gas-side igniter chamber thermocouples provided chamber thermal profile characteristics. The cold flow chamber pressure (P(sub c)) for each test was determined and coupled with the igniter chamber diameter (D(sub c)) to calculate the characteristic quench parameter (P(sub c) x D(sub c)), which was plotted as a function of core mixture ratio, MR(sub c). Ignition limits were determined over a broad range of valve inlet conditions, and ignition was demonstrated with oxygen inlet conditions that ranged from subcooled 173 R LOX to 480 R GQX. Once ignited at cold GOX conditions, combustion was continuous as the hardware chilled in and the core mixture ratio transitioned from values near 1.0 to over 12.5.

Popp, Christopher G.↗

High Voltage Surge Protection by a Varistor-Filled Air Gap

The electric discharge across a varistor granule filled air gap under a fast-rising voltage pulse was investigated for surge protection applications. The effects of temperature and pressure on the arc and the electrical conduction were analyzed by the characteristic changes in voltage waveforms triggered by a fast-rising high voltage pulse. In addition to the gap size, experimental results show that competing mechanisms among arc conduction, conduction through the varistor granule network, thermionic emission from Joule heating at granule-to-granule contact points, and the magnitude of the switching voltage dictate the maximum surge protection voltage for the filled air gap. Experimental evidence indicated that accumulated degradation was created at small contact points between varistor granules by repetitive assaults from longer duration, high voltage pulses. The uniqueness of using varistor over other dielectric granules in an air gap for surge protection is identified and discussed.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

FLASH: FPGA-Accelerated Smart Switches with GCN Case Study

Some communication switches, e.g., the Mellanox SHArP and those in the IBM BlueGene clusters, are augmented to process packets at the application level with fixed-function collectives. This approach, however, lacks flexibility, which limits their applicability in diverse and dynamic workloads. Recently, a new type of programmable packet processor, which uses high-level languages, e.g., P4, has emerged as possible candidates. P4-based switches, however, fall short in certain applications, including machine learning, where capabilities not currently supported by P4 are needed. These include more complex calculation, such as sparse computation and fused multiply-accumulate, data-intensive floating point operations, data reuse, and significant memory. The problem addressed here is that such a switch augmentation needs to support: a large amount of state, significant flexible compute capability, and ease of programming, all while maintaining full functionality, including ensuring high throughput, and demonstrating utility. In this work, we propose a programmable look-aside-type accelerator that can be embedded into, or attached to, existing communication switch pipelines and that is capable of processing packets at line-rate. The proposed in-switch accelerator is based on mixing an ISA (subset of RISC-V instructions) with dataflow graphs (found in CGRAs). To augment performance, vector instructions are also supported. To facilitate usability, we have developed a complete toolchain to compile user-provided C/C++ codes to appropriate back-end instructions for configuring the accelerator. While this approach is flexible enough to support various workloads, in this paper, we consider Graph Convolutional Networks (GCNs) as a case study. Experimental results show that this approach considerably improves the performance of distributed GCN applications.

Haghi, Pouya↗

NASA Tech Briefs, November 2003

Topics covered include: Computer Program Recognizes Patterns in Time-Series Data; Program for User-Friendly Management of Input and Output Data Sets; Noncoherent Tracking of a Source of a Data-Modulated Signal; Software for Acquiring Image Data for PIV; Detecting Edges in Images by Use of Fuzzy Reasoning; A Timer for Synchronous Digital Systems; Prototype Parts of a Digital Beam-Forming Wide-Band Receiver; High-Voltage Droplet Dispenser; Network Extender for MIL-STD-1553 Bus; MMIC HEMT Power Amplifier for 140 to 170 GHz; Piezoelectric Diffraction-Based Optical Switches; Numerical Modeling of Nanoelectronic Devices; Organizing Diverse, Distributed Project Information; Eigensolver for a Sparse, Large Hermitian Matrix; Modified Polar-Format Software for Processing SAR Data; e-Stars Template Builder; Software for Acoustic Rendering; Functionally Graded Nanophase Beryllium/Carbon Composites; Thin Thermal-Insulation Blankets for Very High Temperatures; Prolonging Microgravity on Parabolic Airplane Flights; Device for Locking a Control Knob; Cable-Dispensing Cart; Foam Sensor Structures Would be Self-Deployable and Survive Hard Landings; Real-Gas Effects on Binary Mixing Layers; Earth-Space Link Attenuation Estimation via Ground Radar Kdp; Wedge Heat-Flux Indicators for Flash Thermography; Measuring Diffusion of Liquids by Common-Path Interferometry; Zero-Shear, Low-Disturbance Optical Delay Line; Whispering-Gallery Mode-Locked Lasers; Spatial Light Modulators as Optical Crossbar Switches; Update on EMD and Hilbert-Spectra Analysis of Time Series; Quad-Tree Visual-Calculus Analysis of Satellite Coverage; Dyakonov-Perel Effect on Spin Dephasing in n-Type GaAs; Update on Area Production in Mixing of Supercritical Fluids; and Quasi-Sun-Pointing of Spacecraft Using Radiation Pressure.

Source record↗

Mass spectrometer

The quadrupole Mass Spectrometer of the Induced Environment Contamination Monitor (IECM) operates in the range from 2 to 150 amu. It is pointed out that the Mass Spectrometer on STS-2 performed very well. It was found that the column density of H2O effluent from the Shuttle reached a maximum of 1 x 10 to the 13th per sq cm at 7 hr, 30 min and decreased by a factor of 7.5 during the subsequent 40 hrs. The count rate response of H2O could be correlated with mission-related events, taking into account the dumping of supply water, the operation of the Flash Evaporator System, and the firing of a primary reaction control system engine.

Miller, E. R.↗

Popping phenomena with the hydrazine nitrogen-tetroxide propellant system.

The propellant spray resulting from the impingement of liquid jets of hydrazine and nitrogen tetroxide has been studied at atmospheric pressure by means of streak photography. The streak photographs show periodic small explosions that originate near the impingement point and propagate through the propellant spray at velocities of 3000 to 5000 fps, consuming all propellant droplets over a distance of up to 6 in. Typical streak photographs are presented. The frequency of the explosions or pops ranged up to several hundred cps, and could be controlled by varying the contact time in the liquid phase. Below a minimum threshold contact time, popping did not take place. At high values of contact time, the popping rate was controlled by the transit time of the free jet before impingement. Flashing of the oxidizer prior to impingement prevented popping under certain conditions. It is postulated that popping is initiated by liquid phase reactions. A mechanism for the occurrence of popping and its relation to reactive stream separation is suggested.

Houseman, J.↗