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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2023

Energy-Efficient Maneuvering of Connected and Automated Vehicles (CAVs) with Situational Awareness at Intersections (Final Progress Report)

The increased development of Connected and Automated Vehicle (CAV) systems, currently used for safety and driver convenience, presents new opportunities to improve the energy efficiency of vehicles. Southwest Research Institute (SwRI) achieved a 20% energy consumption reduction in a 2017 Toyota Prius Prime plug-in hybrid by using connectivity (V2V, V2I, V2X) as part of the Next Generation Energy Technologies for Connected and Automated on-Road Vehicles (NEXTCAR) program. The energy consumption gains were achieved by a combination of vehicle dynamics and powertrain control algorithms with a focus on SAE L1 and L2 automated vehicles where a human is still responsible for safe operation. SwRI is now involved in NEXTCAR-II, focusing on energy-efficient control tech for SAE Level 4/5 automated vehicles, aiming for a 30% energy reduction compared to stock hybrids. The rise of Mobility as a Service (MaaS) is driving investments in L4 and L5 automated vehicles. A study by the University of Michigan shows these vehicles might increase energy use and emissions by 3-20%. Technology similar to NEXTCAR can enhance energy efficiency in highly automated vehicles, leveraging improved sensing and actuation capabilities. While the NEXTCAR programs targeted energy efficiency improvements for a single vehicle, this program adopts a more expansive approach. It places its focus on understanding and testing the cumulative effects within a region or corridor, aiming to assess how a subset of vehicles equipped with NEXTCAR-style technologies influence the overall energy consumption of all vehicles traveling within that area. Additionally, the program explores infrastructure-based mobility solutions to optimize efficiency, and seeks to understand and quantify public perception and likelihood of technology adoption.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗
DOE OSTI2023

Energy Optimization of Light and Heavy-Duty Vehicle Cohorts of Mixed Connectivity, Automation and Propulsion System Capabilities via Meshed V2V-V2I and Expanded Data Sharing (Final Scientific and Technical Report)

Vehicle connectivity and automated driving technologies individually have the potential to decrease energy consumption and/or increase safety on light, medium or heavy duty vehicles to varying degrees depending on the traffic infrastructure and specific driving scenarios. Due to advances in sensing, perception and computing power, research and development emphasis in the mobility sector has shifted away from connectivity. Prior research has shown that driving automation with the absence of connectivity can in certain circumstances increase energy consumption. The effectiveness of synergizing connectivity and driving automation technologies is the focus of this work, specifically applied to vehicle cohorts of mixed composition, light and heavy duty, and powertrains ranging from all electric to conventional internal combustion engine. The project team is led by Michigan Technological University (MTU) and partnered with AVL Mobility Technologies Inc. (AVL), Borg Warner (BW), Traffic Technology Services (TTS), American Center for Mobility (ACM) and Navistar (NAV). The main thrusts for the team are to develop a micro-traffic simulation environment with specific VD&PT system attributes and CAV capabilities, 2) field a vehicle test fleet of mixed classification, propulsion and CAV capacity, 3) develop artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) based multi-agent optimization methods for various traffic infrastructures, 4) integrate the virtual environment and the optimization methods then deploy the system as a CAV hardware in the loop (HiL) for the vehicle test fleet and 5) conduct closed track and public road testing to validate simulation and demonstrated energy and mobility improvements at multiple scales. For a cohort of mixed vehicles, the team will demonstrate a reduction of energy consumption of 10-50% at intersection, arterial roadway and limited access highway scenarios through connectivity and automation in simulation and at a closed test track. The energy reduction objectives of the project are summarized in Table 1, indicating the infrastructure and over what distances are relevant considered. Single scenario energy reductions are not relevant and thus, the research team took the approach to vary parameters associated with the infrastructure, vehicle cohort composition and dynamic behavior to generate energy consumption distributions for both unconnected and connected scenarios.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗
DOE OSTI2023

Detailed Simulation Study to Evaluate Future Transportation Decarbonization Potential

This report is the ninth revision of a continuous-improvement, scenario-based study on program benefits from the U.S. Department of Energy’s Vehicle Technologies Office and Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technologies Office. With each revision of the study, Argonne made improvements to the assumptions, control strategies at the vehicle level, methodologies, powertrain selections, and the number of vehicles analyzed. In 2019, separate reports were published on the analysis of light-duty and heavy-duty vehicles. From 2020 onwards, summaries for both light- and heavy-duty vehicles are consolidated into one report. The first part of the report covers the impact of technology progress on light-duty vehicles and the second part of the report is devoted to the technology progress assumed for medium- and heavy-duty trucks.

33 ADVANCED PROPULSION SYSTEMS↗
DOE OSTI2024

Hydrogen Infrastructure Analysis for the Port Applications [Slides]

The International Maritime Organization has committed to 50% reduction in GHG emissions by 2050 worldwide as of 2023. This analysis includes performing an inventory and modeling efforts to understand the energy, equipment and cost requirements to support decarbonization of cargo handling and shore power at U.S. Ports, along with assessment of zero- and near- zero emission fuel supplies at or near U.S. ports focused upon Hydrogen technologies. Initial market assessment for ocean going vessels for harbor support and ocean-going vessels is explored. An energy analysis is performed on the port system using a holistic approach and considering the port as an entire ecosystem that functions as a transportation and energy node. Presently, a comprehensive view is lacking for future analysis efforts, this analysis seeks to address this gap in data by evaluating four representative port types and the potential for utilizing hydrogen for the maritime industry. Every port is different, but broadly they could be bracketed into reference cases with scaling factors for the relative size of the port operations. These reference ports are for future use, potentially as baselines for analysis and development of demonstration programs. An equipment inventory for each reference port type (container, bulk, breakbulk, and inland waterway) is presented. A comparative analysis of fuel cell electric and battery electric equipment is conducted based on the following criteria: technology readiness level, refueling/charging time, operational range, energy consumption, and fuel cost savings compared to baseline internal combustion engine equipment. The tradeoffs and synergies between two alternative powertrains is highlighted. Based on energy and infrastructure analysis, average and high equipment utilization profiles across different port types is identified and quantified baseline fuel and electricity demand for various decarbonization scenarios. Based on the portfolio of equipment converted to fuel cell electric, the estimates of initial capital investment are provided for hydrogen refueling stations across ports. An energy demand model is developed that predicts well the all-electric cargo handling equipment annual energy consumption for ports with annual tonnage under 2 million twenty-foot equivalent units (TEUs). The model is a good rubric to follow for further energy demand models that can create a scalable solution to understand the energy needs of cargo handling equipment, whether they are all-electric, hydrogen fuel cell, or powered by another fuel-type. Zero and near-zero emission fuel supply at ports is evaluated looking into the characteristics of hydrogen, ammonia, and methanol as an alternative fuel, as well as the bunkering status. The readiness of reference ports to produce ammonia or methanol and bunker the fuel is examined based on the framework developed by the Global Maritime Forum and Rocky Mountain Institute.

08 HYDROGEN↗
DOE OSTI2024

MV Sea Change: Fuel Cell, Emissions, and Hydrogen Fueling Performance

The Sea Change Project, managed and financed by SWITCH Maritime, produced the first zero-emission 100% hydrogen fuel-cell powered commercial ferry in the world. The MV Sea Change is a 70-foot catamaran equipped with a 360-kW fuel cell powertrain and a 250-bar 246 kg capacity hydrogen storage system. The 75-passenger vessel began public passenger service in July 2024 as part of the San Francisco Bay Ferry system. Summarized here are aspects of the design of the vessel, its construction, and vessel bunkering with high-pressure hydrogen. Results from a fuel cell performance analysis are also presented, along with estimates of the greenhouse gas (GHG) and criterial pollutant emissions assuming different sourcings of hydrogen. Lessons learned from the project will be briefly reviewed.

08 HYDROGEN↗
DOE OSTI2025

Unitary Thermal Energy Management for Propulsion Range Augmentation (UTEMPRA) (CRADA Final Report)

NREL will work with Delphi to develop technology that integrates the thermal management of electric drive vehicle sub-systems into a unified thermal system that reduces auxiliary loads and increases vehicle range. The ultimate goal is to create a cost-effective system which improves climate control efficiency through heat pump operation and waste heat recovery, while maintaining occupant thermal comfort and meeting powertrain thermal requirements. The technology will also aim to reduce the number of independent cooling systems required in electric drive vehicles.

33 ADVANCED PROPULSION SYSTEMS↗
DOE OSTI2025

TEAMER – Enhanced Flow Measurement for Aquantis Tidal Turbine Test

The AQ10 is a floating, two-bladed, passive yawing tidal turbine developed by Aquantis that has a 10-meterrotor diameter, 160 kW rating, and employs reliable off-the-shelf powertrain and power conversion hardware. Aquantis is planning on-water turbine power performance and loads (blade loading and thrust)testing, where the turbine will be pushed through still water up to 4 knots and placed in a ‘station keeping’ tow in a tidal race up to its rated speed. On-water testing will be conducted using vessels and floating platforms on the sea surface to improve ease of testing and reduce disturbance to the environment. In this TEAMER project, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL) will conduct water velocity and turbulence measurements in front of the turbine during on-water testing using acoustic Doppler instrumentation. By measuring both the tidal current flowing past the turbine and the resulting electrical power output, test results will provide a power curve (power vs flow speed) for the turbine up to rated power. Measurements of turbulence and velocity shear in front of the rotor will also provide information to assess the structural response of the rotor blades. With this analysis, Aquantis can use the performance and loads data to validate Tidal Bladed and OpenFAST simulations of the measured operating conditions. Measuring the power performance of a prototype turbine is a valuable step to improving device development and conducting a complete power performance assessment to IEC/TS 62600-200 standards in the future.

16 TIDAL AND WAVE POWER↗
DOE OSTI2022

Materials FY 2021 Annual Progress Report

The Materials Technology subprogram supports the VTO’s mission to accelerate the deployment of clean energy technology toward achieving net-zero emissions in the transportation sector. Lighter vehicles with more efficient powertrains reduce energy use, decrease greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and save consumers money.

33 ADVANCED PROPULSION SYSTEMS↗
DOE OSTI2025

Zero-Emission Transit Bus Needs Assessment

The transition to zero-emissions vehicles (ZEVs) in public transit has gained traction due to significant federal investments from the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law (BIL) and the Inflation Reduction Act (IRA). This needs assessment, commissioned by the Joint Office of Energy and Transportation and conducted by researchers at the Idaho National Laboratory, explores the current state of electrification in transit agencies, identifying barriers to implementation, potential funding sources, and operational considerations necessary for a successful transition. The assessment involved qualitative interviews with representatives from 19 transit service providers across diverse geographic regions. Key findings highlight the challenges related to bus facilities and operations, which require careful planning for charging infrastructure and maintenance capabilities to accommodate battery electric buses (BEBs) and hydrogen fuel cell buses (HFCBs). Agencies reported operational hurdles due to the shorter range of BEBs compared to diesel buses, necessitating revised scheduling and routing strategies. Despite these challenges, many agencies expressed optimism about their capacity to adapt. Funding availability emerged as a critical factor influencing the transition to ZEVs. While agencies welcomed increased financial support, particularly from the Low or No Emission Grant Program (Lo-No), concerns about the sustainability of this funding and the ongoing operational costs were prevalent. The need for a comprehensive funding inventory was underscored to ensure transit agencies are aware of all available resources. Technological constraints were significant barriers to ZEV adoption. The limited range of BEBs was frequently cited as a concern, leading to operational challenges and reliability issues. Agencies reported difficulties in sourcing replacement parts, which exacerbated downtime and maintenance challenges. Workforce development and training were identified as pivotal for a successful transition. Many agencies rely heavily on manufacturers for technician training, highlighting the need for scalable training programs that equip staff with the necessary skills to maintain electric powertrains effectively. This assessment offers actionable recommendations for the Joint Office, including enhancing outreach to transit agencies, developing resources for effective utility partnerships, and facilitating comprehensive training programs. Establishing a zero-emission bus evaluation program to track performance metrics such as cost, range, and reliability could provide valuable insights for transit agencies. The needs assessment provides a detailed examination of the challenges and opportunities facing transit agencies in their transition to zero-emissions bus fleets. By addressing these issues through targeted support, stakeholders can collaboratively work towards a cleaner, more sustainable public transportation system that benefits all communities.

33 - ADVANCED PROPULSION SYSTEMS↗
DOE OSTI2026

A High Power Density and High Efficiency Traction Drive Based on a Segmented Inverter and an Axial and Radial Flux Hybrid Machine

Eaton Corporation and Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) collaborated to develop a high performance traction drive system aimed at increasing power density and overall efficiency. The system integrates Eaton’s hybrid flux motor—combining radial and axial flux paths to convert end-winding and structural elements into torque-producing components—with ORNL’s high-power-density segmented inverter. This motor design achieves higher torque density within the same footprint as traditional radial flux machines by effectively utilizing end turns. ORNL’s segmented inverter reduces the DC bus capacitor requirement by over 50% compared to standard voltage source inverters (VSIs), achieving power densities exceeding 100 kVA/L. The dual-module architecture also enables six-phase operation, aligning with Eaton’s motor design. Together, the motor and inverter offer a compact, efficient traction drive system with the potential for significant reductions in system weight and improvements in powertrain efficiency.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗
DOE OSTI2023

Machine learning models for maintenance cost estimation in delivery trucks using diesel and natural gas fuels

The maintenance costs can represent about 15%–60% of the cost of produced goods depending on the type of goods transported. To comply with stringent emissions regulations, diesel engines are incorporated with complex after-treatment systems that demand increased maintenance. The availability of alternative fuels such as natural gas and propane has fostered the natural gas and propane powertrain systems as well as electrification options for heavy- and medium-duty vehicles. A critical barrier to adopting alternative fuel vehicles has been the lack of knowledge on comparative vehicle maintenance/repair costs with conventional diesel. Moreover, the region of operation, the type of vehicle operation, and seasonal temperature changes also affect the duty cycle which impacts the maintenance and repair costs. This study focuses on estimating the cost-per-mile for heavy-duty vehicles using machine learning models such as random forest, xgboost, neural networks, and a super-learner model. The super-learner model achieved an error as low as 0.0068 $/mile for mean absolute error and 0.0086 $/mile for root mean square error with a coefficient of determination/R-Squared of 97.28%. Specifically, the paper investigates the data collected from the maintenance and repair costs associated with delivery trucks using diesel and natural gas fuels. Since the availability of data is the major constraint, we leveraged the data collected by West Virginia University and the partnership with fleet companies. This allows for additional information related to maintenance costs and fleet-specific maintenance practices of alternative fuel vehicles. This study promotes clean fuel technologies and enables fleet management companies to adopt alternative fuel vehicles in case of similar or lower cost of maintenance compared to diesel vehicles resulting in reduced emissions and total cost of ownership.

Katreddi, Sasanka↗
DOE OSTI2020

Relationships between Vehicle Pricing and Features: Data Driven Analysis of the Chinese Vehicle Market

A full-scale understanding of the dynamics of the Chinese vehicle market can benefit stakeholders with respect to rational decision-making and effective long-term investment. This study attempts to discover the common vehicle pricing patterns in the Chinese market by quantifying statistical correlations among critical vehicle features from intrinsic powertrain systems to extrinsic market positioning. The data samples involve almost all passenger vehicle models sold in 2013 to 2019. After comparing multiple statistical methodologies, a log-transformation variant of the multinomial linear regression model was found to be the best one, and the goodness of fit shows that this model can offer stable estimates, which were validated using 2019 market data. The insights achieved are: (1) The price and major performance features of SUVs/crossovers are similar to those of sedans; (2) If all other explicit features remain the same, the price of a Japanese midsize sedan is 62% higher than that of a Chinese midsize sedan, and European midsize vehicles have the highest prices overall. (3) The incremental price of fuel consumption varies by vehicle class and fuel economy. For example, from 30 to 50 MPG, the vehicle price increases by $119 for a Chinese brand sedan vehicle, by $69 for a Chinese brand SUV.

33 ADVANCED PROPULSION SYSTEMS↗
DOE OSTI2022

Numerical and Experimental Investigations on the Ignition Behavior of OME

On the path towards climate-neutral future mobility, the usage of synthetic fuels derived from renewable power sources, so-called e-fuels, will be necessary. Oxygenated e-fuels, which contain oxygen in their chemical structure, not only have the potential to realize a climate-neutral powertrain, but also to burn more cleanly in terms of soot formation. Polyoxymethylene dimethyl ethers (PODE or OMEs) are a frequently discussed representative of such combustibles. However, to operate compression ignition engines with these fuels achieving maximum efficiency and minimum emissions, the physical-chemical behavior of OMEs needs to be understood and quantified. Especially the detailed characterization of physical and chemical properties of the spray is of utmost importance for the optimization of the injection and the mixture formation process. The presented work aimed to develop a comprehensive CFD model to specify the differences between OMEs and dodecane, which served as a reference diesel-like fuel, with regards to spray atomization, mixing and auto-ignition for single- and multi-injection patterns. The simulation results were validated against experimental data from a high-temperature and high-pressure combustion vessel. The sprays’ liquid and vapor phase penetration were measured with Mie-scattering and schlieren-imaging as well as diffuse back illumination and Rayleigh-scattering for both fuels. To characterize the ignition process and the flame propagation, measurements of the OH* chemiluminescence of the flame were carried out. Significant differences in the ignition behavior between OMEs and dodecane could be identified in both experiments and CFD simulations. Liquid penetration as well as flame lift-off length are shown to be consistently longer for OMEs. Zones of high reaction activity differ substantially for the two fuels: Along the spray center axis for OMEs and at the shear boundary layers of fuel and ambient air for dodecane. Additionally, the transient behavior of high temperature reactions for OME is predicted to be much faster.

33 ADVANCED PROPULSION SYSTEMS↗
DOE OSTI2026

Understanding Electric Vehicle Range and Charging Needs: Interactions Between Ambient Temperature, Commute Patterns, and State-of-Charge Usage

Electric vehicle (EV) performance can vary substantially under real-world operating conditions, particularly due to ambient temperature effects on energy consumption, battery behavior, and thermal management requirements. This study quantifies how weather conditions, daily driving patterns, and State-of-Charge (SOC) usage strategies jointly influence EV driving range, charging frequency, and overall energy efficiency. A detailed and experimentally validated Autonomie vehicle model is developed, integrating a powertrain, a mono-zonal cabin model, and a battery electro-thermal model. Three battery sizes (200-, 300-, and 400-mile homologated ranges) are assessed across five commute profiles (20–200 miles) and six ambient temperatures (−18 °C to 50 °C), including scenarios with and without preconditioning. Results show that extreme temperatures could significantly decrease the maximum achievable range by up to 55% in cold conditions (−18 °C) and 40% in hot conditions (50 °C), relative to moderate conditions. Larger battery packs retain a greater fraction of their nominal range under thermal stress, while smaller packs experience sharper relative penalties due to the higher contribution of thermal loads to total energy demand. The analysis further demonstrates that limiting operation to partial SOC windows (e.g., 80–20%), a common real-world practice, significantly reduces achievable range and increases charging frequency, particularly in cold weather. Thermal preconditioning while plugged in is shown to mitigate these effects for short trips, reducing energy consumption by up to 31% in hot conditions and 7% in cold conditions. The findings demonstrate how climate, SOC usage behavior, and thermal management jointly shape the practical driving capability of EVs, highlighting the importance of efficient thermal management and realistic user charging strategies for ensuring reliable EV operation across diverse climatic scenarios.

33 ADVANCED PROPULSION SYSTEMS↗
DOE OSTI2024

A Quantitative Phase Analysis by Neutron Diffraction of Conventional and Advanced Aluminum Alloys Thermally Conditioned for Elevated-Temperature Applications

As the issue of climate change becomes more prevalent, engineers have focused on developing lightweight Al alloys capable of increasing the power density of powertrains. The characterization of these alloys has been focused on mechanical properties and less on the fundamental response of microstructures to achieve these properties. Therefore, this study assesses the quality of the microstructure of two high-temperature Al alloys (A356 + 3.5RE and Al-8Ce-10Mg), comparing them to T6 A356. These alloys underwent thermal conditioning at 250 and 300 °C for 200 h. Time-of-flight neutron diffraction experiments were performed before and after conditioning. The phase evolution was quantified using Rietveld refinement. It was found that the Si phase grows significantly (13–24%) in T6 A356, A356 + 3.5RE, and T6 A356 + 3.5RE alloys, which is typically correlated with a reduction in mechanical properties. Subjecting the A356 3.5RE alloy to a T6 heat treatment stabilizes the orthorhombic Al4Ce3Si6 and monoclinic β-Al5FeSi phases, making them resistant to thermal conditioning. These two phases are known for enhancing mechanical properties. Additionally, the T6 treatment reduced the vol.% of the cubic Al20CeTi2 and hexagonal ᴨ-Al9FeSi3Mg5 phases by 13% and 23%, respectively. These phases have detrimental mechanical properties. The Al-8Ce-10Mg alloy cubic β-Al3Mg2 phase showed significant growth (82–101%) in response to conditioning, while the orthorhombic Al11Ce3 phase remained stable. The growth of the beta phase is known to decrease the mechanical properties of this alloy. These efforts give valuable insight into how these alloys will perform and evolve in demanding high-temperature environments.

Chemistry↗
DOE OSTI2022

Characterizing the Payback and Profitability for Automated Heavy Duty Vehicle Platooning

Heavy duty vehicle platooning under highway operating conditions has been projected to provide significant fuel economy gains based on aerodynamic drag improvements of the platooning vehicles. Realizing these benefits and the economic viability under real-world operating conditions presents several challenges. The objective of this paper (the third as part of a series) is to analytically quantify the payback and profitability of heavy-duty vehicles platooning across the U.S. Interstate highway system. In this paper, a rigorous assessment of several factors that influence the platooning system payback for an end-user as well as the revenue potential for suppliers who may be utilizing an equipment lease model dependent on end-user savings, is presented. In this assessment key interactions explored include market adoption rates, platooning velocities, platoon-able daily mileage, platooning likelihood, variations in baseline powertrain fuel economy (diesel or electric), price of fuel (diesel or electricity), platooning fuel economy benefits, price of the added technology, and the impact of natural platooning due to traffic interactions. Further, the paper explores the economic impact of higher levels of vehicle automation for the trailing vehicles in the platoon, where extending the driver Hours of Service (HoS) may provide additional financial benefits. While the approach makes use of a limited fidelity vehicle analytical model for longitudinal dynamics and operations economics, the narrative provides application decision personnel with a mechanism and well-defined set of impact factors to consider as part of their architectural selection process.

33 ADVANCED PROPULSION SYSTEMS↗
DOE OSTI2019

Vehicle Electrification Impacts on Energy Consumption for Different Connected-Autonomous Vehicle Scenario Runs

Transportation system simulation is a widely accepted approach to evaluate the impact of transport policy deployment. In developing a transportation system deployment model, the energy impact of the model is extremely valuable for sustainability and validation. It is expected that different penetration levels of Connected-Autonomous Vehicles (CAVs) will impact travel behavior due to changes in potential factors such as congestion, miles traveled, etc. Along with such impact analyses, it is also important to further quantify the regional energy impact of CAV deployment under different factors of interest. The objective of this paper is to study the energy consumption of electrified vehicles in the future for different penetration levels of CAVs deployment in the City of Chicago. The paper will further provide a statistical analysis of the results to evaluate the impact of the different penetration levels on the different electrified powertrains used in the study.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗
DOE OSTI2025

ELECTRIFICATION OF A HEAVY-DUTY OFF-ROAD MATERIAL HANDLER: ENERGY SAVINGS AND EMISSION REDUCTIONS

Federal regulations are driving the adoption of electrification technologies to reduce carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e) emissions, a metric that quantifies the global warming potential of various greenhouse gases in terms of carbon dioxide (CO2). Although no specific CO2 regulations exist for heavy-duty off-road machines, future reductions are likely, given stricter emissions standards for on-road vehicles. The heavy-duty off-road sector offers significant fuel-saving potential, as its focus has traditionally been on reliability and performance rather than fuel efficiency. This dissertation examines fuel and CO2e savings opportunities on a heavy-duty off-road material handler, the Pettibone Cary-Lift 204i, from stock configuration to simple modifications to a complete teardown and reconfiguration of the machine with a plug-in series hybrid architecture using electrified hydraulics. The study begins by modeling the baseline machine’s fuel and energy consumption, calibrating with experimental data from custom operating cycles. An energy analysis identifies key areas for fuel savings. Two simple powertrain modifications result in a combined 16.2% fuel savings. Next, a Pugh-style analysis narrows a list of electrified architectures, leading to high-fidelity models that evaluate total lifetime CO2e and costs. Higher electrification levels reduce CO2e emissions but increase costs, and electricity grid emissions significantly impact CO2e for plug-in architectures. A plug-in series hybrid is chosen for the project. In its base control form, 49% fuel and 29% CO2e savings are expected from the plug-in series hybrid compared to the baseline machine. Further savings are pursued through regenerative braking (6.3%) and load-following hydraulic control (17.8%), totaling 24.1% fuel savings, and leading to a total of 61% fuel and 41% CO2e savings compared to the baseline. Battery chemistries and charging strategies are also analyzed for cost and CO2e impacts, finding LFP batteries as superior due to longevity, and overnight level 2 charging usually at a lower cost but resulting in higher emissions than opportunity DC fast-charging (DCFC). DCFC emissions are highly dependent on grid emissions, and DCFC cost is highly dependent on grid demand charges. Finally, artificial intelligence is applied to operating cycle recognition. Neural network accuracy ranges from 81% to 99%, with applications to worksite efficiency and safety improvements.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗