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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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NASA NTRS1993

Discrete ordinates solutions of nongray radiative transfer with diffusely reflecting walls

Nongray gas radiation in a plane parallel slab bounded by gray, diffusely reflecting walls is studied using the discrete ordinates method. The spectral equation of transfer is averaged over a narrow wavenumber interval preserving the spectral correlation effect. The governing equations are derived by considering the history of multiple reflections between two reflecting wails. A closure approximation is applied so that only a finite number of reflections have to be explicitly included. The closure solutions express the physics of the problem to a very high degree and show relatively little error. Numerical solutions are obtained by applying a statistical narrow-band model for gas properties and a discrete ordinates code. The net radiative wail heat fluxes and the radiative source distributions are obtained for different temperature profiles. A zeroth-degree formulation, where no wall reflection is handled explicitly, is sufficient to predict the radiative transfer accurately for most cases considered, when compared with increasingly accurate solutions based on explicitly tracing a larger number of wail reflections without any closure approximation applied.

Menart, J. A.↗
NASA NTRS1993

Near-specular reflection of ions at quasi-parallel shocks

One-dimensional hybrid simulations and a semianalytical model of the shock front are employed to investigate the source regions in the incident ion phase space of reflected and transmitted ions, the relative importance of the electric and magnetic forces in the reflection of incident ions, and how these characteristics change in time. The phase space origin of reflected particles and the fraction of incident ions that reflect are found to depend on the electromagnetic field structure of the shock front at the time the ions encounter it. The reflection fraction is maximized when the electric field along the shock normal (Ex) and the noncoplanar magnetic field (By) are at their maximum values. When Ex and By are large, the reflection process produces a beam that is cooler, more dense, and closer to specular than when they are small.

Mckean, M. E.↗
NASA NTRS1992

Alfven wave reflection and heating in coronal holes - Theory and observation

We present evidence for significant reflection of Alfven waves in an isothermal, hydrostatic model corona and that heating in coronal holes is provided by Alfven waves. For Alfven waves with periods of 5 min, upward propagating waves are reflected if the temperature is less than 10 exp 6 K, but escape into the solar wind if the temperature is greater than 10 exp 6 K. This sensitive temperature dependence may provide the self-limiting mechanism that has been suspected to exist because the reflected waves result in heating which raises the temperature which, in turn, decreases the reflection. The reflection occurs mostly inside of about 6 solar radii, depending on temperature, wave period, and magnetic field strength and geometry. The importance of this process has often been overlooked due to a poor choice of coronal Alfven speed and temperature. SOHO is well-suited to measure whether the required properties for reflection exist. Solar Probe, however, is the only definitive experiment to show if the waves actually exist to the degree necessary.

Suess, S. T.↗
NASA NTRS1992

High-flux source of low-energy neutral beams using reflection of ions from metals

Reflection of low-energy ions from surfaces can be applied as a method of producing high-flux beams of low-energy neutral particles, and is an important effect in several areas of plasma technology, such as in the edge region of fusion devices. We have developed a beam source based on acceleration and reflection of ions from a magnetically confined coaxial RF plasma source. The beam provides a large enough flux to allow the energy distribution of the reflected neutrals to be measured despite the inefficiency of detection, by means of an electrostatic cylindrical mirror analyzer coupled with a quadrupole mass spectrometer. Energy distributions have been measured for oxygen, nitrogen, and inert gas ions incident with from 15 to 70 eV reflected from amorphous metal surfaces of several compositions. For ions of lighter atomic mass than the reflecting metal, reflected beams have peaked energy distributions; beams with the peak at 4-32 eV have been measured. The energy and mass dependences of the energy distributions as well as measurements of absolute flux, and angular distribution and divergence are reported. Applications of the neutral beams produced are described.

Cuthbertson, John W.↗
NASA NTRS1992

Grazing incidence X-ray reflectivity - Studies for the AXAF observatory

The energy bandwidth and total throughput of a grazing incidence optics system is a strong function of the X-ray reflectivity of the surface coating. In support of the Advanced X-ray Astrophysics Facility (AXAF), studies are underway to evaluate and characterize the reflectivity of potential AXAF coatings. Here we report on results obtained for Au, Ir, and Ni coatings produced by electron-beam evaporation, evaporation with ion-assist, and sputtering. Effects of coating thickness and deposition angle have been evaluated at 6.4 and 8.1 keV; the highest reflectivities are those of the thinner, about 200 A vs about 700 A, coatings. While considerable variations exist, the best Ir samples have higher reflectivity than any of the Au coatings. Data results have been compared with models for theoretical reflectivity, particularly with regard to the effective density of the coatings. Independent measurements of the coating densities have been carried out for comparison with the reflectivity results.

Slane, P.↗
NASA NTRS1992

LAI inversion from optical reflectance using a neural network trained with a multiple scattering model

The inversion of the leaf area index (LAI) canopy parameter from optical spectral reflectance measurements is obtained using a backpropagation artificial neural network trained using input-output pairs generated by a multiple scattering reflectance model. The problem of LAI estimation over sparse canopies (LAI < 1.0) with varying soil reflectance backgrounds is particularly difficult. Standard multiple regression methods applied to canopies within a single homogeneous soil type yield good results but perform unacceptably when applied across soil boundaries, resulting in absolute percentage errors of >1000 percent for low LAI. Minimization methods applied to merit functions constructed from differences between measured reflectances and predicted reflectances using multiple-scattering models are unacceptably sensitive to a good initial guess for the desired parameter. In contrast, the neural network reported generally yields absolute percentage errors of <30 percent when weighting coefficients trained on one soil type were applied to predicted canopy reflectance at a different soil background.

Smith, James A.↗
NASA NTRS1992

Spectral bidirectional and hemispherical reflectance characteristics of selected sites in the Streletskaya steppe

Measurements of plant canopy bidirectional reflectance made by the PARABOLA (portable apparatus for rapid acquisition of bidirectional observations of the land and atmosphere) instrument in three spectral bands are analyzed for steppe grassland sites of differing productivity levels. The variation of spectral reflectance and the normalized difference vegetation index in the solar principal plane is presented. Comparisons are made with PARABOLA measurements from selected first ISLSCP field experiment (FIFE) grassland sites in the Konza prairie, Kansas. The Streletskaya steppe sites showed no strong hot spot reflectance, while this effect was present in some FIFE sites but absent in others. The hot spot effect seems to be dependent on canopy geometry and background reflectance characteristics of these sites. Spectral hemispherical reflectance was computed from the angular integration of the bidirectional measurements for the steppe sites. Total shortwave albedo was estimated from these hemispherical reflectance measurements and compared to albedo measured by pyranometers. The albedo estimates from PARABOLA were found to be approximately 12-17 percent higher than the pyranometer measurements.

Eck, Thomas F.↗
NASA NTRS1993

Nongray gas analyses for reflecting walls utilizing a flux technique

A flux formulation for a planar slab of molecular gas radiation bounded by diffuse reflecting walls is developed. While this formulation is limited to the planar geometry, it is useful for studying approximations necessary in modeling nongray radiative heat transfer. The governing equations are derived by considering the history of multiple reflections between the walls. Accurate solutions are obtained by explicitly accounting for a finite number of reflections and approximating the spectral effects of the remaining reflections. Four approximate methods are presented and compared using a single absorption band of H2O. All four methods reduce to an identical zeroth-order formulation, which accounts for all reflections approximately but does handle nonreflected radiation correctly. A single absorption band of CO2 is also considered using the best-behaved approximation for higher orders. A zeroth-order formulation is sufficient to predict the radiative transfer accurately for many cases considered. For highly reflecting walls, higher order solutions are necessary for better accuracy. Including all the important bands of H2O, the radiative source distributions are also obtained for two different temperature and concentration profiles.

Menart, J. A.↗
NASA NTRS1993

Engineering design of sub-micron topographies for simultaneously adherent and reflective metal-polymer interfaces

The approach of the project is to base the design of multi-function, reflective topographies on the theory that topographically dependent phenomena react with surfaces and interfaces at certain scales. The first phase of the project emphasizes the development of methods for understanding the sizes of topographic features which influence reflectivity. Subsequent phases, if necessary, will address the scales of interaction for adhesion and manufacturing processes. A simulation of the interaction of electromagnetic radiation, or light, with a reflective surface is performed using specialized software. Reflectivity of the surface as a function of scale is evaluated and the results from the simulation are compared with reflectivity measurements made on multi-function, reflective surfaces.

Brown, Christopher A.↗
NASA NTRS1994

Ocean color remote sensing using polarization properties of reflected sunlight

The effects of the atmosphere and surface on sunlight backscattered to space by the ocean may be substantially reduced by using the unpolarized component of reflectance instead of total reflectance. At 450 nm, a wavelength of interest in ocean color remote sensing, and for typical conditions, 45% of the unpolarized reflectance may originate from the water body instead of 20% of the total reflectance, which represents a gain of a factor 2.2 in useful signal for water composition retrieval. The best viewing geometries are adjacent to the glitter region; they correspond to scattering angles around 100 deg, but they may change slightly depending on the polarization characteristics of the aerosols. As aerosol optical thickness increases, the atmosphere becomes less efficient at polarizing sunlight, and the enhancement of the water body contribution to unpolarized reflectance is reduced. Since the perturbing effects are smaller on unpolarized reflectance, at least for some viewing geometries, they may be more easily corrected, leading to a more accurate water-leaving signal and, therefore, more accurate estimates of phytoplankton pigment concentration.

R. Frouin↗
NASA NTRS1993

Application of a two-stream radiative transfer model for leaf lignin and cellulose concentrations from spectral reflectance measurements, part 2

We used the Kubelka-Munk theory of diffuse spectral reflectance in layers to analyze influences of multiple chemical components in leaves. As opposed to empirical approaches to estimation of plant chemistry, the full spectral resolution of laboratory reflectance data was retained in an attempt to estimate lignin or other constituent concentrations from spectral band positions. A leaf water reflectance spectrum was derived from theoretical mixing rules, reflectance observations, and calculations from theory of intrinsic k- and s-functions. Residual reflectance bands were then isolated from spectra of fresh green leaves. These proved hard to interpret for composition in terms of simple two component mixtures such as lignin and cellulose. We next investigated spectral and dilution influences of other possible components (starch, protein). These components, among others, added to cellulose in hypothetical mixtures, produce band displacements similar to lignin, but will disguise by dilution the actual abundance of lignin present in a multicomponent system. This renders interpretation of band positions problematical. Knowledge of end-members and their spectra, and a more elaborate mixture analysis procedure may be called for. Good observational atmospheric and instrumental conditions and knowledge thereof are required for retrieval of expected subtle reflectance variations present in spectra of green vegetation.

Conel, James E.↗
NASA NTRS1993

Engineering design of sub-micron topographies for simultaneously adherent and reflective metal-polymer interfaces

The approach of the project is to base the design of multi-function, reflective topographies on the theory that topographically dependent phenomena react with surfaces and interfaces at certain scales. The first phase of the project emphasizes the development of methods for understanding the sizes of topographic features which influence reflectivity. Subsequent phases, if necessary, will address the scales of interaction for adhesion and manufacturing processes. A simulation of the interaction of electromagnetic radiation, or light, with a reflective surface is performed using specialized software. Reflectivity of the surface as a function of scale is evaluated and the results from the simulation are compared with reflectivity measurements made on multi-function, reflective surfaces.

Brown, Christopher A.↗
NASA NTRS1994

Modeling the bidirectional reflectance distribution function of mixed finite plant canopies and soil

An analytical model of the bidirectional reflectance for optically semi-infinite plant canopies has been extended to describe the reflectance of finite depth canopies contributions from the underlying soil. The model depends on 10 independent parameters describing vegetation and soil optical and structural properties. The model is inverted with a nonlinear minimization routine using directional reflectance data for lawn (leaf area index (LAI) is equal to 9.9), soybeans (LAI, 2.9) and simulated reflectance data (LAI, 1.0) from a numerical bidirectional reflectance distribution function (BRDF) model (Myneni et al., 1988). While the ten-parameter model results in relatively low rms differences for the BRDF, most of the retrieved parameters exhibit poor stability. The most stable parameter was the single-scattering albedo of the vegetation. Canopy albedo could be derived with an accuracy of less than 5% relative error in the visible and less than 1% in the near-infrared. Sensitivity were performed to determine which of the 10 parameters were most important and to assess the effects of Gaussian noise on the parameter retrievals. Out of the 10 parameters, three were identified which described most of the BRDF variability. At low LAI values the most influential parameters were the single-scattering albedos (both soil and vegetation) and LAI, while at higher LAI values (greater than 2.5) these shifted to the two scattering phase function parameters for vegetation and the single-scattering albedo of the vegetation. The three-parameter model, formed by fixing the seven least significant parameters, gave higher rms values but was less sensitive to noise in the BRDF than the full ten-parameter model. A full hemispherical reflectance data set for lawn was then interpolated to yield BRDF values corresponding to advanced very high resolution radiometer (AVHRR) scan geometries collected over a period of nine days. The resulting parameters and BRDFs are similar to those for the full sampling geometry, suggesting that the limited geometry of AVHRR measurements might be used to reliably retrieve BRDF and canopy albedo with this model.

Schluessel, G.↗
NASA NTRS1999

GPS Ocean Reflection Experiment on Spartan 251

It has recently been demonstrated that the GPS signal which has reflected from the ocean surface contains useful geophysical data from which the sea surface wind speed and other parameters can be extracted. This can be used for remote sensing, similar to present day use of radar altimeters or scatterometers, but with significantly smaller instrumentation because of the utilization of the existing GPS broadcast signal for illumination. Several campaigns of aircraft experimentation have been completed demonstrating this technique and reflected GPS data has been reliably collected from 25 km altitude on a balloon. However, there has not yet been a demonstration that the reflected GPS signal can be detected from orbit with sufficient signal to noise ratio (SNR) to make useful remote sensing measurements. A technology demonstration experiment was planned for a Space Shuttle flight in the late 2000 using the Spartan 251 recoverable carrier. This experiment would also have been the first flight validation of the PiVoT GPS receiver developed in house at the Goddard Space Flight Center. The "open-architecture" design of this receiver would allow the software modifications to be made which control code-correlator spacing to map out the shape of the reflected signal waveform, which is the most basic data product generated by this instrumentation. A moderate gain left-hand circularly polarized antenna, constructed from an array of off-the-shelf hemispherical antennas was to be used to give approximately 3 to 6 dB of additional gain. Preliminary SNR predictions have been done indicating that this antenna would offer sufficient gain to record waveform measurements. A system level description of the experiment instrumentation, including the receiver, antenna and data storage and retrieval will be given. The visibility of GPS reflections over the mission duration of several hours will be studied, including the effects of the limited beamwidth of the antenna. Spartan 251 has now been postponed with the earliest opportunity in the year 2002. The results of this study however, have been 2 used to further the define the requirements and expected performance of reflected GPS receivers in orbit. Several other space flight opportunities are being considered based upon this new information.

Garrison, James L↗
NASA NTRS2000

BOREAS RSS-19 1994 Seasonal Understory Reflectance Data

The BOREAS RSS-19 team collected airborne remotely sensed images and ground reflectance data for characterizing the radiometric properties of the boreal forest landscape. One objective of BOREAS is to further the understanding of the spectral bidirectional reflectance of typical boreal ecosystem stands in the visible/near-infrared regime. An essential input for any canopy BRDF model is an accurate estimate of the average understory reflectance, both for sunlit and shaded conditions. These variables can be expected to vary seasonally because of species-dependent differences in the phenological cycle of foliar display. In response to these requirements, the average understory reflectance for the flux tower sites of both the NSA (Thompson, Manitoba) and the SSA (Candle Lake, Saskatchewan) was observed throughout the year during five field campaigns. This was done by measuring the nadir reflectance (400 to 850 nm) of sunlit and shaded understory (vegetation and snow cover) along a surveyed LAI transect line (Chen, RSS-07) at each site near solar noon and documenting an average site reflectance. Comparisons between sites reveal differences in the green and infrared regions of the spectra, because of the differing species in the understory for each site. Temporal (seasonal) variation for each site was also observed (06-Feb-1994 to 16-Sep-1994), indicating the changing flora mixtures and changing spectral signatures as the understory matures during the growing season. The data are stored in tabular ASCII files. The data files are available on a CD-ROM (see document number 20010000884) or from the Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) Distributed Active Archive Center (DAAC).

Miller, John R.↗
NASA NTRS2000

Radar Reflectivity of the Martian Polar Regions

Radar experiments provide a unique method of probing the surfaces and subsurfaces of planetary bodies. Information on surface and subsurface structures and properties can be extracted from radar data. There is a well developed history of radar investigations of the planet Mars, beginning with the first reports of variations of scattering properties as a function of martian longitude in the mid-1960's. Because of the rapid rotation of Mars, the standard technique of delay-doppler mapping cannot be used as effectively as it is on Mercury and Venus, making it a more difficult radar target. Techniques have been developed to overcome this difficulty, including an inversion technique to combine many doppler-only (CW) experiments from different viewing geometries into a map of surface reflectivity, and new random long-code techniques. These techniques still suffer from ambiguities, however. A third technique which does not suffer from these ambiguities is the combination of the powerful Goldstone transmitter with the VLA as the receiving instrument to create a combined radar imaging instrument. We have used this combined radar instrument to image the surface of Mars in 3.5-cm radar reflectivity during the 1988, 1992/93, and 1999 oppositions. During the 1988 experiments, the residual south polar ice cap (RSPIC) was the brightest radar reflector on the planet - intrinsically brighter than even the Tharsis lava flows. This was quite an unexpected result. In contrast, during the 1992/93 experiments, the residual north polar ice cap (RNPIC) was not nearly so bright, and in fact showed no enhancement at all, This was puzzling, given the 1988 results for the RSPIC. We attributed the lack of a radar reflection enhancement to a combination of three effects: the geometry was different; the season was different; and the intrinsic scattering from the residual ice caps was different. The 1999 experiments provided a chance to test the relative importance of these three effects, since the RNPIC would be visible in a geometry very similar to the RSPIC in 1988, and the season would also be very similar. Preliminary reduction of the data taken in 1999 shows that the RNPIC did in fact show a radar reflectivity enhancement, but that it was still not as bright as the RSPIC in 1988. Details regarding the radar reflectivity of the residual ice caps, as well as the surrounding polar layered terrains (in light of our radar reflectivity data) will be discussed. Additional information is contained in the original extended abstract.

Butler, B. J.↗
NASA NTRS2002

Changes in Earth 360 to 380 nm Reflectivity: 1980 to 2000

The TOMS reflectivity time series 1980 to 1992 and 1997 to 2000 have been combined to estimate change that have occurred over a 21 year period. The relative calibration of the two TOMS (Nimbus-7, N7 and Earth-Probe, EP) has been adjusted using the measured minimum reflectivity over mid-latitude ocean and land locations (50 deg.). The result is that the N7 reflectivity has been decreased by 0.02 to match the better-calibrated Earth-Probe/TOMS. Most of the local trend features seen in the N7 time series (1980 to 1992) have been continued in the combined time series, but the overall zonal average and global trends have changed. The correlation of cloud cover with solar activity (measured by the 10.7 cm solar radiation) that was present during the Nimbus-7 period (1980 to 1992) is no longer evident for the period 1980 to 2000. The UV reflectivity data are compared with changes in the AVHRR outgoing long-wavelength radiation (OLR) and show an expected anti-correlation with cloud-cover changes over the same period for many, but not all, features. The key results include a continuing decrease in cloud cover over Europe and North America and an increase in reflectivity near Antarctica. This also means that the previously published N7 UV surface reflectivity climatology should be reduced by 0.02.

Herman, J. R.↗
NASA NTRS2003

Foliar Reflectance and Fluorescence Responses for Plants Under Nitrogen Stress Determined with Active and Passive Systems

Vegetation productivity is driven by nitrogen (N) availability in soils. Both excessive and low soil N induce physiological changes in plant foliage. In 2001, we examined the use of spectral fluorescence and reflectance measurements to discriminate among plants provided different N fertilizer application rates: 20%, 50%, 100% and 150% of optimal N levels. A suite of optical, fluorescence, and biophysical measurements were collected on leaves from field grown corn (Zea mays L.) and soybean plants (Glycine max L.) grown in pots (greenhouse + ambient sunlight daily). Three types of steady state laser-induced fluorescence measurements were made on adaxial and abaxial surfaces: 1) fluorescence images in four 10 nm bands (blue, green, red, far-red) resulting from broad irradiance excitation; 2) emission spectra (5 nm resolution) produced by excitation at single wavelengths (280,380 or 360, and 532 nm); and 3) excitation spectra (2 nm resolution), with emission wavelengths fixed at wavelengths centered on selected solar Fraunhofer lines (532,607,677 and 745 nm). Two complementary sets of high resolution (less than 2 nm) optical spectra were acquired for both adaxial and abaxial leaf surfaces: 1) optical properties (350-2500 nm) for reflectance, transmittance, and absorptance; and 2) reflectance spectra (500-1000 nm) acquired with and without a short pass filter at 665 nm to determine the fluorescence contribution to apparent reflectance in the 650-750 spectrum, especially at the 685 and 740 nm chlorophyll fluorescence (ChIF) peaks. The strongest relationships between foliar chemistry and optical properties were demonstrated for C/N content and two optical parameters associated with the red edge inflection point. Select optical properties and ChIF parameters were highly correlated for both species. A significant contribution of ChIF to apparent reflectance was observed, averaging 10-25% at 685 nm and 2 - 6% at 740 nm over all N treatments. Discrimination of N treatment groups was possible with specific fluorescence band ratios (e.g., F740/F525 obtained with 380EX). From all measurements assessing fluorescence, higher ChIF and blue/green emissions were measured from the abaxial leaf surfaces; Abaxial surfaces also produced higher reflectances in the 400-800 nm spectrum. Fluorescence information collected in Fraunhofer regions located on the shoulders of ChIF features compared favorably with peak emissions. This supports the potential capability of a future space-born interferometer sensor to capture plant canopy fluorescence.

Middleton, E. M.↗