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DOE OSTI2021

ESPC ESA Training Series: Photovoltaic (PV) Project Considerations

This training covers technical, economic and other photovoltaic (PV) project considerations. Technical topics include cost-effectiveness, resilience, cybersecurity, and electrical considerations. In addition, other topics, such as compatibility with agency mission, site plans, coordination with the serving utility, the National Environmental Policy Act, and agency approval requirements. Considerations specific to third-party owned/third-party financed PV projects are also covered, as well as available resources and templates for project development. The training also includes a recap of the first session in the Energy Savings Performance Contracts Energy Sales Agreements (ESPC ESA) Webinar Series.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

DOE OSTI2023

A critical review of cyber-physical security for building automation systems

Modern Building Automation Systems (BASs), as the brain that enable the smartness of a smart building, often require increased connectivity both among system components as well as with outside entities, such as the cloud, to enable low-cost remote management, optimized automation via outsourced cloud analytics, and increased building-grid integrations. As smart buildings move towards open communication technologies, providing access to BASs through the building's intranet, or even remotely through the Internet, has become a common practice. However, increased connectivity and accessibility come with increased cyber security threats. BASs were historically developed as closed environments with limited cyber-security considerations. As a result, BASs in many buildings are vulnerable to cyber-attacks that may cause adverse consequences, such as occupant discomfort, excessive energy usage, and unexpected equipment downtime. Therefore, there is a strong need to advance the state-of-the-art in cyber-physical security for BASs and provide practical solutions for attack mitigation in buildings. However, an inclusive and systematic review of BAS vulnerabilities, potential cyber-attacks with impact assessment, detection & defense approaches, and cyber resilient control strategies is currently lacking in the literature. This review paper fills the gap by providing a comprehensive up-to-date review of cyber-physical security for BASs at three levels in commercial buildings: management level, automation level, and field level. The general BASs vulnerabilities and protocol-specific vulnerabilities for the four dominant BAS protocols (i.e., BACnet, KNX, LonWorks, and Modbus) are reviewed, followed by a discussion on four attack targets and seven potential attack scenarios. Furthermore, the impact of cyber-attacks on BASs is summarized as signal corruption, signal delaying, and signal blocking. The typical cyber-attack detection and defense approaches are identified at the three levels. Cyber resilient control strategies for BASs under attack are categorized into passive and active resilient control schemes. Open challenges and future opportunities are finally discussed.

97 MATHEMATICS AND COMPUTING↗

DOE OSTI2025

Coupling Waste Feedstocks to Microbial Protein Production in a Circular Food System

Global food production is a major contributor to greenhouse gas emissions, water consumption, and land use. As an alternative to conventional agriculture, the production of waste-derived microbial protein (MP) holds promise for reducing environmental impacts. MP can be mass-produced in volumetrically scalable fermentation processes on short time scales, enabling facile scale-up with lower greenhouse gas emissions, land use, and water impacts than animal and, in some cases, plant protein. MP can also be produced from waste feedstocks, diverting waste from landfills or the natural environment. This Perspective explores the availability and suitability of waste feedstocks for MP production, suggesting that MP generated from waste feedstocks in the United States could fulfill twice the current national protein demand. Here, we also discuss the biotechnological and separations processes required to produce food-grade MP for human consumption from waste. Key challenges include MP consistency, consumer and regulatory acceptance, and the process utilities (electricity, heat, and nutrients) that account for up to 85% of MP costs and most environmental impacts, all of which present opportunities for innovation in the microbiology and process design spaces. Overall, this work highlights the potential of MP to contribute to a more circular, resilient, and sustainable food system.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗

DOE OSTI2021

Beyond the List: Bioagent-Agnostic Signatures Could Enable a More Flexible and Resilient Biodefense Posture Than an Approach Based on Priority Agent Lists Alone

As of 2021, the biothreat policy and research communities organize their efforts around lists of priority agents, which elides consideration of novel pathogens and biotoxins. For example, the Select Agents and Toxins list is composed of agents that historic biological warfare programs had weaponized or that have previously caused great harm during natural outbreaks. Similarly, lists of priority agents promulgated by the World Health Organization and the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases are composed of previously known pathogens and biotoxins. To fill this gap, we argue that the research/scientific and biodefense/biosecurity communities should categorize agents based on how they impact their hosts to augment current list-based paradigms. Specifically, we propose integrating the results of multi-omics studies to identify bioagent-agnostic signatures (BASs) of disease—namely, patterns of biomarkers that accurately and reproducibly predict the impacts of infection or intoxication without prior knowledge of the causative agent. Here, we highlight three pathways that investigators might exploit as sources of signals to construct BASs and their applicability to this framework. The research community will need to forge robust interdisciplinary teams to surmount substantial experimental, technical, and data analytic challenges that stand in the way of our long-term vision. However, if successful, our functionality-based BAS model could present a means to more effectively surveil for and treat known and novel agents alike.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2021

Analytic Framework for Optimal Sizing of Hydrogen Fueling Stations for Heavy Duty Vehicles at Ports (CRADA 512)

This CRADA presents the strategy that PNNL and Sandia National Laboratories (SNL) will take to support Seattle City Light (SCL) in properly sizing a hydrogen station for class 8 drayage trucks at the Port of Seattle (Port), as part of a coordinated plan of mixed uses for hydrogen. The proper sizing for the fueling station is unique from past experiences because it will be part of a coordinated plan for a multi-use scheme for the hydrogen, and not a stand-alone fueling station. The multiple use-streams, and their relative values, will impact all facets of station sizing and design, including fueling rates, storage technology and size, equipment selection, and safety considerations. The future deployment of this fueling station, and its proper sizing, is seen as a critical first step in the larger vision of utilizing hydrogen to address a range of issues for SCL and the Port. These include, but are not limited to, large scale fueling of medium duty (MD) and heavy duty (HD) vehicles to reduce emissions, support of adjacent light duty (LD) vehicles, support of critical port operation during extreme events (e.g. resiliency), mitigation of capital intensive electrical distribution system upgrades to support evolving port operations, a market resource that can be used by SCL to generate revenue, and support of planned future maritime operations that currently require heavy use of shipboard hydrogen. While the broader use of hydrogen by SCL and the Port is not the focus of this CRADA, how its use impacts the design of the initial vehicle fueling station, and the modular approach, are the central work. As such, this project will develop the framework and process for developing a modular station design that considers the broader range of coordinate uses of hydrogen as an energy resource.

08 HYDROGEN↗

DOE OSTI2026

Artificial Intelligence-Driven Management of Sustainable Energy Resources: Visibility, Operation, and Control

The rapid global transition toward sustainable energy resources (SERs) is reshaping how modern power systems are observed, optimized, and controlled. While SERs have significantly advanced decarbonization, their weather dependence, variability, and inverter-dominated characteristics challenge traditional, centralized, and deterministic grid operation. At the same time, the proliferation of high-resolution data from inverters, smart meters, and sensors offers unprecedented visibility into system dynamics. Yet, it also exceeds the analytical capability of conventional model-based approaches. Artificial intelligence (AI) provides a new foundation for addressing these challenges by bridging physical laws with data-driven learning, enabling accurate state awareness, adaptive operation, and coordinated control across distributed assets. This article examines how AI transforms the management of SER-rich power systems along three critical dimensions: 1) enhancing visibility by inferring behind-the-meter (BTM) activities, assessing SER flexibility, and reconstructing system states from sparse or noisy measurements; 2) improving operation through AI-enhanced SER service provision, volt/var control (VVC), and dynamic operating envelopes (DOE) for efficiency and security; and 3) advancing control by embedding learning-based intelligence into inverter coordination, voltage and frequency regulation, and long-term dispatch. Together, these developments reveal how AI can convert the variability of SERs from an operational challenge into a source of flexibility, resilience, and intelligence, paving the way toward sustainable, adaptive, and self-optimizing power systems.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗

DOE OSTI2023

Storm-DEPART (Damage Estimate Prediction and Recovery Tool)

Storm-DEPART (Damage Estimate Prediction and Restoration Tool): Each year hurricanes and tropical storms in the United States damage critical infrastructure assets, disrupt the services they provide, and cause millions to billions of dollars in economic impacts due to extended recovery times. The Storm-DEPART tool and analytical output enable more impactful data-driven decision-making capabilities and strengthen national-level disaster preparedness, response, and recovery. Storm-DEPART, built through multi-month collaboration between Entergy and INL, combines Entergy’s critical infrastructure inventory data with weather forecasts to predict damages to Electric utility’s assets due to natural disasters and the estimated recovery support needed, including time, materials, and resource allocation. In the event of an approaching hurricane, this innovative solution can assess potential damage to power generation capacity, transmission grids, distribution networks, and communications assets from wind bands, storm surge, and flooding. With more effective predictions, Entergy can more efficiently allocate resources to mitigate impacts and optimize recovery for customers. Storm-DEPART also allows Electric utilities the ability to apply a planning scenario and model expected damage to better inform infrastructure restoration needs leading to enhance system resiliency. The technology is fully transferrable to other electric utilities with the same damage estimating challenges. The INL team is working on the evolution of Storm-DEPART to include ice event damage prediction framework.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗

DOE OSTI2023

Storm-DEPART (Damage Estimate Prediction and Recovery Tool)

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗

DOE OSTI2020

GronOR: Massively Parallel and GPU-Accelerated Non-Orthogonal Configuration Interaction for Large Molecular Systems

GronOR is a program package for non-orthogonal configuration interaction calculations for an electronic wave function built in terms of anti-symmetrized products of multi-configuration molecular fragment wave functions. The two-electron integrals that have to be processed may be expressed in terms of atomic orbitals or in terms of an orbital basis determined from the molecular orbitals of the fragments. The code has been specifically designed for execution on distributed memory massively parallel and Graphics Processing Unit (GPU)-accelerated computer architectures, using an MPI+OpenACC/OpenMP programming approach. The task-based execution model used in the implementation allows for linear scaling with the number of nodes on the largest pre-exascale architectures available, provides hardware fault resiliency, and enables effective execution on systems with distinct central processing unit-only and GPU-accelerated partitions. The code interfaces with existing multi-configuration electronic structure codes that provide optimized molecular fragment orbitals, configuration interaction coefficients, and the required integrals. Algorithm and implementation details, parallel and accelerated performance benchmarks, and an analysis of the sensitivity of the accuracy of results and computational performance to thresholds used in the calculations are presented.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

DOE OSTI2025

Thermostable Enzyme Variants in the Lower Mevalonate Pathway Improve Isoprenoid Production by Cell-Free Biocatalysis

Cell-free biocatalysis is a rapidly evolving field with great potential for sustainably producing valuable chemicals. Some challenges in cell-free biocatalysis include reaction longevity, enzyme stability, and the cost of the biocatalysts. Here, the challenge of enzyme instability was addressed by employing thermophilic enzymes to improve the productivity of the lower mevalonate pathway, using limonene as an example isoprenoid product. The Classical mesophilic mevalonate pathway was compared to a newly assembled set of thermophilic enzymes comprising the Archaea I mevalonate pathway. The thermophilic pathway enzymes were thermostable to at least 60 °C and exhibited a 6× longer operating lifetime at 22 °C. Thus, despite lower initial activity rates at ambient temperature, the thermophilic pathway was longer-lived and resulted in a more productive cell-free reaction overall, achieving 1.7× higher yield of limonene compared to using enzymes from mesophiles. Moreover, the thermostable pathway retained activity for longer with the challenge of solvent exposure, namely, ethanol and isoprenol, which broadens the scope of accessible substrates and/or products in cell-free reactions employing this pathway. Altogether, we showed significant improvement in the stability and productivity of the lower mevalonate pathway, which will enable more efficient cell-free biosynthesis of isoprenoid products. This represents a valuable strategy to increase the robustness of cell-free systems by carefully sourcing biocatalysts from thermophilic organisms, which have proven to be resilient to challenges unique to cell-free reaction systems.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗

DOE OSTI2025

A digital twin platform for building performance monitoring and optimization: Performance simulation and case studies

Advancements in sensor technology, data analytics, affordable compute, and communication infrastructure have paved the way for Digital Twin technology in optimizing building operations and controls. This study presents the development of an open and interoperable web-based Digital Twin platform for integrating diverse data streams and facilitating effective user interactions. The platform utilizes modern technologies for the web framework and time-series data management, ensuring scalability and responsiveness. The backend supports seamless integration of diverse data sources and emulators, incorporating data from building sensors and meters, external weather Application Programming Interfaces, and advanced EnergyPlus simulation models of the building and its energy systems including the Distributed Energy Resources that are formulated in Functional Mockup Units. A simulation case study was conducted with FlexLab, a test facility on Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory campus. The case study includes normal operations, Distributed Energy Resource integration, and power outage scenarios, to illustrate the Digital Twin’s ability to provide critical insights into energy performance and thermal resilience. The results demonstrated the platform’s potential as a decision-support tool for optimizing building energy performance and enhancing resilience against extreme weather events. Future work will focus on deploying the Digital Twin platform to a real building for field validation, extending its capabilities to cover more scenarios such as bidirectional Electric Vehicle interactions, and enhancing user engagement.

EnergyPlus↗

DOE OSTI2022

The Essential Role of Integrated Nuclear-Renewable Energy Systems in Achieving Economy-wide Net Zero Solutions

Background/Objectives. The Biden administration has committed to full decarbonization of the U.S. electricity grid by 2035 and economy-wide net zero emissions by 2050. These aggressive goals demand immediate action if we are to be successful, and they require us to think more holistically about our clean energy options. Focused laboratory initiatives, such as the INL Integrated Energy Systems (IES) Initiative, and multiple programs within the Department of Energy are working together to address these holistic solutions. Approach/Activities. Traditionally, electricity generation and management and meeting energy demands for industry and transportation are considered independently. As we seek to achieve net zero, we need to reassess our energy demands. When we consider overall energy use, only one-third is in the form of electricity. Additional energy demands are in the form of heat or steam for industrial processes, as well as transportation. Emissions across these sectors are much harder to abate, and electrification may not be the best option. Reducing environmental emissions at an affordable cost, while maintaining grid reliability and resilience, will require us to use all of the clean energy resources that we have available. That means coordinating the use of nuclear, renewables, and fossil fuels with carbon capture to meet growing demands for electricity, industrial applications, and mobility. The primary focus of IES research is to assess the technical and economic potential of various IES solutions to enhance the flexibility and utilization of nuclear energy generators working alongside renewable generators to meet an array of energy demands—thereby maximizing the utilization of clean energy resources across all energy sectors. Various energy applications and product streams beyond electricity are being evaluated, ranging from generation of potable water to production of hydrogen, fertilizers, synthetic fuels, and various chemicals. Results/Lessons Learned. This presentation will highlight the wide array of RD&D being conducted to develop and deploy nuclear-based IES that will be key to achieving our net zero goals. By working with key collaborators in the nuclear industry, analytical studies are now becoming a reality in multiple demonstration projects.

08 HYDROGEN↗

DOE OSTI2021

Intrusion Detection for Cybersecurity of Power Electronics Dominated Grids: Inverters PQ Set-Points Manipulation

This work provides cybersecurity analytics for a high photovoltaic (PV) penetrated distribution network, representing future power electronics dominated grid (PEDG). Firstly, the impact of active and reactive power (PQ) set-points manipulation on the network is studied. Then, an intrusion detection system (IDS) is developed for identifying the potentially compromised PV inverters in the network. The proposed IDS is based on defining the normal, safe, and abnormal operation regions of the PV inverters from point of view of the steady state voltage stability of the network. These three-operation regions are identified by utilizing active power, reactive power, and voltage (PQV) limits of each specific grid-following inverter in the network. Each grid-following inverter's PQV contour includes the information of network topology, inverter ratings, and inverter controller. The developed PQ limits are integrated into the centralized secondary control layer for realization of the proposed IDS. Furthermore, the proposed secondary control layer is capable of providing remedial actions during an anomaly event to enhance the grid resiliency. The theoretical analyses are verified by several attack scenarios for a network of grid-following inverters.

41 EE - Solar Energy Technologies Office (EE-4S)↗

DOE OSTI2022

Hydrazine Energy Storage: Displacing N 2 H 4 from the Metal Coordination Sphere

Hydrogen carriers, such as hydrazine (N 2 H 4 ), may facilitate long duration energy storage, a vital component for resilient grids by enabling more renewable energy generation. Lanthanide coordination chemistry with N 2 H 4 as well as efforts to displace N 2 H 4 from the metal coordination sphere to develop an efficient catalytic production cycle were detailed. Modeling the equilibrium of different ligand coordination, it was predicted that strong sigma donor molecules would be required to displace N 2 H 4 . Monitoring competition experiments with nuclear magnetic resonance confirmed that trimethyl phosphine oxide, dimethylformamide, and dimethyl sulfoxide displaced N 2 H 4 in large or small lanthanide complexes.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

DOE OSTI2025

Utilization of the LS-APGD microplasma/orbitrap-FTMS booster system for detection and isotopic analysis of neodymium nanoparticles

Detection and isotopic analysis of particle populations has seen rapid growth across several application areas, including environmental analysis, nuclear forensics, and food safety. The ability to characterize the particles' unique elemental and isotopic fingerprints could provide information related to formation, processing history, and transport. Regarding nuclear forensics, isotopic analysis of particles derived from diverse materials is often used as a tool to trace the origin and processing history. Mass spectrometric-based techniques currently used for particle population analysis often suffer from limited mass resolution, particularly when dealing with real-world samples that are affected by isobaric and polyatomic interferences from the matrix. To address these analytical challenges, we propose a novel method utilizing the liquid sampling-atmospheric pressure glow discharge (LS-APGD) microplasma ionization source coupled to an ultrahigh resolution Orbitrap mass spectrometer, further enhanced with the FTMS X2T Booster data acquisition and processing unit. The FTMS Booster enables acquisition of extended transient times of up to 3 s, significantly improving mass resolution, thereby reducing or even eliminating the need for prior separation of isobaric or polyatomic interferences. Additionally, the detection of low-abundance isotopes was improved by increasing the signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio. As proof of concept, this study demonstrates the feasibility of the LS-APGD/Orbitrap-FTMS X2T Booster platform for direct analysis using a suspension of well-characterized ∼120 nm neodymium particles. The quality of the isotope ratios values obtained from a few hundred particles were in good agreement with those obtained from homogeneous ionic solutions. These results highlight the potential of the LS-APGD/Orbitrap platform for rapid, accurate, and interference-resilient isotope ratio analysis of particle populations without the need for dissolution and subsequent chemical separations, offering significant advantages for nuclear forensics, safeguards, and environmental applications. The effort here also points to further paths forward, hopefully towards single particle (SP) analysis using microplasma ionization and the ultrahigh resolving power of the Orbitrap mass analyzer.

FTMS X2T booster↗

DOE OSTI2022

Demonstrating Advanced Nuclear Energy Solutions for Net Zero

Background/Objectives. The aggressive goals being set by nation states, communities, and private industry for decarbonization of grid electricity, industrial heat sources, and transportation around the world are imperative to mitigating the devastating effects that we are seeing from climate change. Although many of these goals focus on accomplishments by 2035 or 2050, the decisions that we make today won’t just impact the landscape of energy systems for the next 20 or 30 years—they will shape the world’s environment for centuries to come. That means that we can’t just focus on technologies that will get us to 2050, but technologies that will withstand our energy demands over that long-ranging future. Success will require us to utilize all of the clean energy resources that we have available to meet demands for electricity, heat, and steam, and we will need energy carriers such as hydrogen that do not emit additional greenhouse gases at the point of use. Nuclear energy, ranging from technologies in service today to advanced, higher temperature and modular systems that will be in service this decade, will provide a robust complement to renewable energy resources that operate variably. Researchers across the U.S. Department of Energy laboratory complex are working to advance multiple aspects of these clean energy solutions, with many focusing on integrated energy system solutions that leverage all available clean energy assets to meet wide-ranging energy demands. Approach/Activities. Nuclear energy is a proven, zero-emission option during operation that can provide consistent, dispatchable power to meet electricity demands while also providing high-quality heat that can meet energy demands beyond the electricity sector. Energy system design should seek to maximize these assets. As a dispatchable energy source with a small land utilization footprint, nuclear energy can be collocated with renewable resources, and the smaller systems that will be deployed this decade (ranging from a few megawatts to hundreds of megawatts) can be installed right where that energy is needed. Integrated nuclear and renewable systems will enhance power grid reliability and resilience, and they will help stabilize the grid through their increasingly flexible operation. Licensing, installation, and broad adoption of these advanced nuclear energy systems are expected to progress significantly in the 2020s, but this may be longer than desired by some stakeholders wishing to implement impactful clean energy decisions today. However, one must recall that nuclear energy systems will operate for 80 or more years, as is being demonstrated by current fleet nuclear systems. The nuclear community is extremely thorough in reviewing these systems with regard to safety and security; these efforts ensure that the deployed systems will continue to provide reliable, resilient energy over that operational lifetime. That investment of time up front will ensure that we can support energy demands over the centuries to come. While advanced nuclear technologies move through this process, communities and private industry may choose to install renewable generation systems that can later be coupled to the complementary nuclear systems as they become available—thus moving closer to the net zero goals in the near term. Choosing technologies and deployment configurations that allow small modular nuclear powerhouses to be added to these “energy parks” as they become available will ensure that advanced technologies can be readily adopted to support growing demands for clean energy. Results/Lessons Learned. The primary focus of integrated energy systems (IES) research is to assess the technical and economic potential of novel multi-input, multioutput solutions that are expected to enhance energy system flexibility, reliability, and resilience as we pursue a clean energy transition. Various energy applications and product streams beyond electricity are being evaluated, ranging from generation of potable water to production of hydrogen, fertilizers, synthetic fuels, and various chemicals. In early FY23 Idaho National Laboratory (INL) will commission thermal energy generation systems that emulate nuclear fission energy input using electric heating and will allow for integrated system testing with thermal energy storage, hydrogen production via high temperature electrolysis (HTE), and power systems hardware to demonstrate operation of a clean energy park within a microgrid or larger grid infrastructure, supporting up to 450 kW of heat input via electric heating and demonstrating operation of HTE systems at the multi-hundred kW scale. This presentation will highlight the wide array of RD&D being conducted at INL and partner laboratories to develop and deploy nuclear and renewable-based IES that will be key to achieving our net zero goals, including both computational and experimental demonstrations. By working with key collaborators in industry, analytical st

08 HYDROGEN↗

DOE OSTI2022

Role of the Mineral in the Self-Healing of Cracks in Human Enamel

Human enamel is an incredibly resilient biological material, withstanding repeated daily stresses for decades. The mechanisms behind this resilience remain an open question, with recent studies demonstrating a crack-deflection mechanism contributing to enamel toughness and other studies detailing the roles of the organic matrix and remineralization. Here, we focus on the mineral and hypothesize that self-healing of cracks in enamel nanocrystals may be an additional mechanism acting to prevent catastrophic failure. To test this hypothesis, we used a molecular dynamics (MD) approach to compare the fracture behavior of hydroxyapatite (HAP) and calcite, the main minerals in human enamel and sea urchin teeth, respectively. In this work, we find that cracks heal under pressures typical of mastication by fusion of crystals in HAP but not in calcite, which is consistent with the resilience of HAP enamel that calcite teeth lack. Scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) images of structurally intact ("sound") human enamel show dashed-line nanocracks that resemble and therefore might be the cracks healed by fusion of crystals produced in silico . The fast, self-healing mechanism shown here is common in soft materials and ceramics but has not been observed in single crystalline materials at room temperature. The crack self-healing in sound enamel nanocrystals, therefore, is unique in the human body and unique in materials science, with potential applications in designing bioinspired materials.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

DOE OSTI2024

Distributed sustainable metals production: opportunities for intensifying separations & alternative feedstocks

Meeting the increased demand for rare earth elements and beyond primary mined ore. Secondary sources like phosphogypsum, coal fly ash, used nuclear fuel, and electronic waste are concentrated sources of critical minerals. One strategy for a resilient supply chain is to decentralize sourcing and hydrometallurgical processing of metals. Rotating packed beds (RPBs) for solid-phase extraction and liquid-liquid extraction are gaining momentum for their ability to increase process throughput by 5-10x the state of the art. In conclusion, this review discusses advances in hydrometallurgical RPB processes and opportunities for implementation in distributed metals production.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗