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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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319 records · Page 11
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
NASA NTRS1997

The Role of Tribology in the Development of an Oil-Free Turbocharger

Gas-turbine-based aeropropulsion engines are technologically mature. Thus, as with any mature technology, revolutionary approaches will be needed to achieve the significant performance gains that will keep the U.S. propulsion manufacturers well ahead of foreign competition. One such approach is the development of oil-free turbomachinery utilizing advanced foil air bearings, seals, and solid lubricants. By eliminating oil-lubricated bearings and seals and supporting an engine rotor on an air film, significant improvements can be realized. For example, the entire oil system including pipes, lines, filters, cooler, and tanks could be removed, thereby saving considerable weight. Since air has no thermal decomposition temperature, engine systems could operate without excessive cooling. Also, since air bearings have no diameter-rpm fatigue limits (D-N limits), engines could be designed to operate at much higher speeds and higher density, which would result in a smaller aeropropulsion package. Because of recent advances in compliant foil air bearings and high temperature solid lubricants, these technologies can be applied to oil-free turbomachinery. In an effort to develop these technologies and to demonstrate a project along the path to an oil-free gas turbine engine, NASA has undertaken the development of an oil-free turbocharger for a heavy duty diesel engine. This turbomachine can reach 120000 rpm at a bearing temperature of 540 C (1000 F) and, in comparison to oil-lubricated bearings, can increase efficiency by 10 to 15 percent because of reduced friction. In addition, because there are no oil lubricants, there are no seal-leakage-induced emissions.

Christopher Dellacorte↗
NASA NTRS2019

Physics-Based Modeling and Simulation of Emerging Battery Technologies for Aerospace

Recently there is a growing interest in the aviation sector to reduce air and noise pollution. Electrochemical energy storage devices such as batteries coupled with a distributed electric propulsion system can reduce noise concerns as well as emissions and allow the concept of Urban Air Mobility to come to fruition. The battery performance needs to improve considerably compared from current state-of-art Li-ion battery (about 200Wh/Kg) to realize all-electric passenger jet for short flights (up to 690 miles). NASA is exploring lithium-oxygen battery chemistry to power hybrid (battery powered electrical system) and all-electric aircraft for short distance and long-distance flights. Li-O2 is one of the advanced Li-ion technologies that promise to provide specific energy of more than 750Wh/Kg. For this presentation, we present our work on improving power density of Li-O2 batteries through the use of multiphysics simulations. Next, a path is outlined to port these model to simulate performance for a new battery chemistry for space application, Li-CO2. Li-CO2 uses carbon dioxide as the active material instead of oxygen. Although this technology is in its early development, the offers two benefits: it can be used as a CO2 scrubber, as oxygen is one of the by-products on charging, and as a backup or a standalone battery for various Mars or Venus missions, where the carbon dioxide content in the atmosphere is high and need battery to operate at higher temperatures.

Mehta, Mohit↗
NASA NTRS1999

Initial Test Firing Results for Solid CO/GOX Cryogenic Hybrid Rocket Engine for Mars ISRU Propulsion Applications

ORBITEC is developing methods for producing, testing, and utilizing Mars-based ISRU fuel/oxidizer combinations to support low cost, planetary surface and flight propulsion and power systems. When humans explore Mars we will need to use in situ resources that are available, such as: energy (solar); gases or liquids for life support, ground transportation, and flight to and from other surface locations and Earth; and materials for shielding and building habitats and infrastructure. Probably the easiest use of Martian resources to reduce the cost of human exploration activities is the use of the carbon and oxygen readily available from the CO2 in the Mars atmosphere. ORBITEC has conducted preliminary R&D that will eventually allow us to reliably use these resources. ORBITEC is focusing on the innovative use of solid CO as a fuel. A new advanced cryogenic hybrid rocket propulsion system is suggested that will offer advantages over LCO/LOX propulsion, making it the best option for a Mars sample return vehicle and other flight vehicles. This technology could also greatly support logistics and base operations by providing a reliable and simple way to store solar or nuclear generated energy in the form of chemical energy that can be used for ground transportation (rovers/land vehicles) and planetary surface power generators. This paper describes the overall concept and the test results of the first ever solid carbon monoxide/oxygen rocket engine firing.

Eric E Rice↗
DOE OSTI2026

Secondary-Side Active Rectifier Synchronization and Control in LCC-LC Compensated Inductive Power Transfer Systems

This paper proposes a communication-less synchronization and output power control strategy for LCC-LC compensated inductive power transfer systems with a secondaryside active rectifier. By replacing the passive rectifier with an active bridge, the proposed architecture eliminates the need for a separate secondary-side DC-DC converter and enables direct regulation of battery power. The key challenge in such a system is achieving robust synchronization of the secondary active bridge with the primary inverter without access to primary-side signals. To address this issue, the secondary-side variables are analyzed and the current through the secondary series inductor is identified as a load-independent synchronization variable with a fixed phase relationship to the primary excitation. A fixed-frequency second order generalized (SOGI)-based phase locked loop (PLL) is used to estimate the switching phase and frequency, and a phase-shift-based output power controller is developed using a phasor-transformer model of the active bridges. A modified control formulation is further introduced to remove phase-dependent loop-gain variation and simplify controller design. Simulation results validate the proposed method under both fixed and varying switching-frequency conditions, demonstrating successful frequency tracking from 82 kHz to 88 kHz and accurate output power regulation over a wide operating range. The proposed method offers a compact and effective solution for high-power IPT systems by enabling secondary-side synchronization and control without wireless communication or an additional DC-DC conversion stage.

Fernandes, Arnold Anthony [ORNL] (ORCID:0009000631↗
DOE OSTI2026

HTGR Multiphysics Application Drivers FY26 Updates

This report summarizes FY26 progress under the Nuclear Energy Advanced Modeling and Simulation (NEAMS) program's high-temperature gas-cooled reactor (HTGR) application driver work, covering a wide range of activities such as code validation and multi-physics code assessment. 1) A detailed SAM model of the High-Temperature Engineering Test Reactor (HTTR) was developed using a unique-block grouping approach, with an extended parallel thermal network method to capture block-to-block conduction and radiation heat transfer, and applied to steady-state simulations of the HTTR 30~MW and 9~MW cases. 2) In another activity, SAM's newly implemented multi-component gas flow model was validated against the Natural convection Shutdown heat removal Test Facility (NSTF) argon ingress experiment, correctly capturing the density-driven suppression and thermal recovery of natural circulation observed when argon is introduced into the air-cooled Reactor Cavity Cooling System (RCCS) loop. 3) For the OECD/NEA High Temperature Test Facility (HTTF) benchmark, we co-led the international benchmark activities as well as the OECD/NEA final benchmark report to be released at the end of this year. 4) Finally, the coupled Griffin-SAM modeling capability for pebble-bed HTGRs was advanced by verifying the Griffin neutronics solution against Serpent Monte Carlo for a realistic non-uniform temperature distribution, resolving several deficiencies in the SAM-to-Griffin temperature transfer scheme, and enabling distinct fuel kernel, moderator, and coolant temperatures for cross section feedback. These new features were demonstrated in a PBR load-following transient.

Lee, Alvin↗
NASA NTRS2005

Microbiological Characterization and Concerns of the International Space Station Internal Active Thermal Control System

Since January 1999, the chemical the International Space Station Thermal Control System (IATCS) and microbial state of (ISS) Internal Active fluid has been monitored by analysis of samples returned to Earth. Key chemical parameters have changed over time, including a drop in pH from the specified 9.5 +/- 0.5 ta = 58.4, an increase in the level of total inorganic carbon (TIC), total organic carbon (TOC) and dissolved nickel (Ni) in the fluid, and a decrease in the phosphate (PO,) level. In addition, silver (AS) ion levels in the fluid decreased rapidly as Ag deposited on internal metallic surfaces of the system. The lack of available Ag ions coupled with changes in the fluid chemistry has resulted in a favorable environment for microbial growth. Counts of heterotrophic bacteria have increased from less than 10 colony-forming units (CFUs)/l00 mL to l0(exp 6) to l0(exp 7) CFUs/100 mL. The increase of the microbial population is of concern because uncontrolled microbiological growth in the IATCS can contribute to deterioration in the performance of critical components within the system and potentially impact human health if opportunistic pathogens become established and escape into the cabin atmosphere. Micro-organisms can potentially degrade the coolant chemistry; attach to surfaces and form biofilms; lead to biofouling of filters, tubing, and pumps; decrease flow rates; reduce heat transfer; initiate and accelerate corrosion; and enhance mineral scale formation. The micro- biological data from the ISS IATCS fluid, and approaches to addressing the concerns, are summarized in this paper.

Monsi C Roman↗
NASA NTRS1993

Lewis Research Center battery overview

The topics covered are presented in viewgraph form and include the following: the Advanced Communications Technology Satellite; the Space Station Freedom (SSF) photovoltaic power module division; Ni/H2 battery and cell design; individual pressure vessel (IPV) nickel-hydrogen cell testing SSF support; the LeRC Electrochemical Technology Branch; improved design IPV nickel-hydrogen cells; advanced technology for IPV nickel-hydrogen flight cells; a lightweight nickel-hydrogen cell; bipolar nickel-hydrogen battery development and technology; aerospace nickel-metal hydride cells; the NASA Sodium-Sulfur Cell Technology Flight Experiment; and the lithium-carbon dioxide battery thermodynamic model.

Odonnell, Patricia↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Thermal-Fluid Analysis of a Liquid-Cooled Battery Module for Electrified Aircraft

The development of safe, energy-dense batteries is critical to advancing hybrid electric and fully electrified aircraft propulsion. Achieving this capability requires a thermal management system that can maintain battery performance and safety under demanding operational conditions. The objective of this project is to support the maturation of next-generation lithium-ion batteries for electrified aircraft by conducting performance testing on integrated battery modules, specifically a 2-cell series configuration module housed within an aluminum enclosure. Designed to operate at a nominal 7.2 V with discharge rates up to 2.5C, the module will eventually be used to power an electric motor and DC-DC converter, generating substantial thermal loads that must be effectively managed to increase the usable energy and power density of electrified aircraft. To address these thermal challenges, this study presents the development and thermal-fluid analysis of a liquid-cooled thermal management system. While the full aircraft architecture utilizes an eight-string configuration, the present work evaluates a representative single-string water coolant loop to characterize baseline performance. The active cooling loop circulates water through a reservoir, pump, the battery module, and a variable area flow meter. Key performance metrics including component-level temperatures, mass flow rates, and pressure drops are quantified across the loop. Across discharge rates ranging from 0.5C to 2.5C, the active thermal loop consistently and effectively removed heat from the module, validating the design approach and confirming readiness for further development. The validated thermal performance indicates a path toward scalable battery modules that could enable energy and power dense systems for hybrid electric aircraft.

Electrified Aircraft↗
DOE OSTI2026

Fast Active-Set Thresholding Method for Nonnegative Least Squares

Nonnegative Least Squares (NNLS) is a fundamental constrained optimization problem encountered in many applications such as image deblurring, signal processing, nonnegative matrix factorization, magnetic microscopy, and hyperspectral imaging. Active-set based methods are a common class of algorithms for solving NNLS which identify the optimal variable set of the NNLS solution. They do so by iteratively solving a series of unconstrained least squares problems, identifying which variables violate the nonnegativity constraints, and then swapping variables in/out of consideration until the optimal set of variables is found. Several variations improving upon this method exist in the literature. In this work, we propose an active-set swap heuristic which further improves upon existing active-set based methods for NNLS. Our optimizations are based upon adding multiple variables to the passive set within a threshold of the smallest gradient value and removing variables within a similar threshold of the closest boundary constraint. We leverage these optimizations to yield a Fast Active-Set Thresholding NNLS (FAST-NNLS) algorithm which significantly outperforms the existing state-of-the-art NNLS algorithms for a wide range of problems. Rigorous convergence guarantees are proven for the proposed method. We demonstrate the effectiveness of our proposed method on multiple synthetic datasets and two realworld text analysis applications. In doing so, we present the most comprehensive NNLS solver comparison in the literature to date.

Cobb, Benjamin [Georgia Institute of Technology]↗
DOE OSTI2024

Adaptive Scalpel Scanning Probe Microscopy for Enhanced Volumetric Sensing in Tomographic Analysis

Controlling nanoscale tip‐induced material removal is crucial for achieving atomic‐level precision in tomographic sensing with atomic force microscopy (AFM). While advances have enabled volumetric probing of conductive features with nanometer accuracy in solid‐state devices, materials, and photovoltaics, limitations in spatial resolution and volumetric sensitivity persist. This work identifies and addresses in‐plane and vertical tip‐sample junction leakage as sources of parasitic contrast in tomographic AFM, hindering real‐space 3D reconstructions. Novel strategies are proposed to overcome these limitations. First, the contrast mechanisms analyzing nanosized conductive features are explored when confining current collection purely to in‐plane transport, thus allowing reconstruction with a reduction in the overestimation of the lateral dimensions. Furthermore, an adaptive tip‐sample biasing scheme is demonstrated for the mitigation of a class of artefacts induced by the high electric field inside the thin oxide when volumetrically reduced. This significantly enhances vertical sensitivity by approaching the intrinsic limits set by quantum tunneling processes, allowing detailed depth analysis in thin dielectrics. The effectiveness of these methods is showcased in tomographic reconstructions of conductive filaments in valence change memory, highlighting the potential for application in nanoelectronics devices and bulk materials and unlocking new limits for tomographic AFM.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
NASA NTRS2026

Electromagnetic Melt Processing: A Pathway to New Additive Manufacturing Technologies for Functional High-Performance Thermoplastics

In this study, we apply the electromagnetic (EM) melt processing of thermoplastics on an innovative EM field-driven powder bed fusion additive manufacturing (AM) concept for high-performance functional parts: Selective Microwave Melting/Sintering (SMM/SMS). This technique leverages the EM susceptibility of carbon nanotube-coated polymer micro-pellets to achieve rapid, localized heating and powder fusion. Thus, selective microwave melting (SMM) was used to fabricate multilayer specimens made of recycled polyphenylene sulfide (rPPS) and carbon nanotubes (CNTs). The resulting SMM specimens exhibited very good interlayer integrity, localized fusion at pellet boundaries, and tolerable residual porosity, indicating effective fusion and acceptable consolidation. CNT-rich interphases were retained after irradiation, generating anisotropic electrically active network pathways and enabling conductivity enhancement at low filler content. At only 1.0 wt% CNT, the specimens exhibited electrical conductivity approximately three orders of magnitude higher than neat rPPS. Dynamic mechanical analysis showed improved viscoelastic response relative to neat rPPS, while tensile testing confirmed that the SMM-processed specimens retained practical mechanical integrity despite localized voids. These results demonstrate that SMM can effectively consolidate EM susceptible thermoplastic powder beds while preserving their segregated conductive networks. This may become a scalable route for producing multifunctional thermoplastic parts with low filler loadings, tunable anisotropy, and structured materials and parts. Overall, the findings suggest that EM field-based AM can help overcome key limitations of conventional thermoplastic processing by enabling scalable, energy-efficient fabrication of nanostructured composites and expanding AM to a broader range of resins, including high-performance thermoplastics with customized functional properties.

Powder bed fusion↗
DOE OSTI2025

Semiconducting Electrides Derived from Sodalite: A First-Principles Study

Electrides are ionic crystals, with electrons acting as anions occupying well-defined lattice sites. These exotic materials have attracted considerable attention in recent years for potential applications in catalysis, rechargeable batteries, and display technology. Among this class of materials, electride semiconductors can further expand the horizon of potential applications due to the presence of a band gap. However, there are only limited reports on semiconducting electrides, hindering the understanding of their physical and chemical properties. In recent work, we initiated an approach to derive potential electrides via selective removal of symmetric Wyckoff sites of anions from existing complex minerals. Herein, we present a follow-up effort to design semiconducting electrides from parental complex sodalites. Among four candidate compounds, we found that a cubic Ca 4 Al 6 O 12 structure with the I-43m space group symmetry exhibits perfect electron localization at the sodalite cages, with a narrow electronic band gap of 1.8 eV, making it suitable for use in photocatalysis. Analysis of the electronic structures reveals that a lower electronegativity of the surrounding cations drives greater electron localization and promotes the formation of an electride band near the Fermi level. Our work proposes an alternative approach for designing new semiconducting electrides under ambient conditions and offers guidelines for further experimental exploration.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2026

Intrinsically Conductive {pi}‑d Conjugated Layers with Co–N4 Active Sites for Efficient Nitrate Electrocatalysis and Zinc-Nitrate Batteries

Electrochemical synthesis of ammonia from nitrate has been extensively investigated as a potential alternative to the energy-intensive Haber-Bosch process. This approach not only operates under ambient conditions but also simultaneously removes nitrate contaminants while producing ammonia as a value-added product. However, the ongoing quest lies in designing an efficient electrocatalyst that achieves a high ammonia yield rate, high selectivity, and long-term stability. Herein, we report the outstanding performance of a Co–N4 coordinated π-d layered Co3(HITP)2 (HITP = 2,3,6,7,10,11-hexaiminotriphenylene) in nitrate electrocatalysis. The unique combination of abundant Co–N4 active sites and superior electrical conductivity enables significant electrocatalytic activity, delivering a maximum ammonia yield rate of 56.8 mg cm–2 h–1 at −0.8 V vs RHE and a Faradaic efficiency of ∼91% at −0.4 V vs RHE. Mechanistic analysis reveals that alkaline conditions accelerate water dissociation to generate adsorbed hydrogen intermediates (H*), which are utilized by Co–N4 sites to drive the stepwise hydrogenation of nitrate to ammonia while suppressing competing hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) pathways. Furthermore, integration of this catalyst into a zinc-nitrate battery resulted in a maximum power density of 5.3 mW cm–2 and an open-circuit potential of ∼1.45 V. These results highlight the potential of π-d conjugated Co–N4 materials as an efficient catalyst for both environmental remediation and energy conversion.

Namvar, shahrirar↗
DOE OSTI2024

Alumina–Titania Nanolaminate Condensers for Hot Programmable Catalysis

Nanolaminates composed of thin alternating layers of Al2O 3 and TiO 2 (ATO) were engineered by using atomic layer deposition as the dielectric material for a Pt-on-carbon catalytic condenser. Investigation assessed synthesis parameters including the deposition temperature, Al 2 O 3 and TiO 2 layer thicknesses, total number of layers, and a capping Al 2 O 3 layer on the maximum charge accumulation in the Pt catalyst. The highest capacitance ATO configuration demonstrated a specific capacitance of ∼1200 nF/cm 2 with working voltages of ±5 V, enabling the storage of 4 × 10 13 electrons or holes per cm 2 at room temperature. The ATO devices exhibited enhanced capacitance at elevated temperatures of up to 400 °C, suggesting the suitability of these materials for high-temperature applications. Adsorption of carbon monoxide on the Pt/C-ATO device characterized by grazing incidence infrared spectroscopy showed changes in the surface binding energy of 13.1 ± 0.8 kJ/mol for an applied external voltage bias of ±1 V.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2026

Expanding the horizon of bio-naphtha beyond gasoline blend: property characterization and conversion opportunity assessment through technoeconomic and life-cycle analyses

Bio-naphtha, a common by-product of biorefineries, is expected to experience substantial growth in supply due to increasing demands for renewable diesel and synthetic aviation fuel (SAF). However, demand for bio-naphtha itself as a gasoline blendstock is limited because of the electrification of light-duty vehicles. This work investigated valorization opportunities for bio-naphtha from catalytic fast pyrolysis, hydrothermal liquefaction, Fischer–Tropsch synthesis, and hydrotreated esters and fatty acids pathways. These opportunities include producing polymer-grade olefin via steam cracking, SAF via steam cracking followed by olefin oligomerization, and renewable aromatics benzene, toluene, and xylene (BTX) and hydrogen via catalytic reforming. Process models were developed in Aspen Plus V14 and Aspen HYSYS V14 to calculate the mass and energy balances for each conversion step. Technoeconomic assessment and life-cycle analysis were conducted to evaluate the minimum fuel/product selling price, conversion cost, and life-cycle CO2 equivalent (CO2e) emission reduction. Technoeconomic assessment results suggest a minimum fuel/product selling price as low as $1.9/kg of olefins, $6.30/gal of gasoline-equivalent SAF, and $1.2/kg of BTX without any incentives. For all pathways, these prices are dominated by bio-naphtha feedstock costs, which account for at least 76% of the total cost. Compared with petroleum baselines, bio-naphtha-derived SAF, olefins, and BTX can achieve significant CO2e emission reductions from the use of renewable carbon resources. The results of life-cycle analysis and subsequent technoeconomic assessment, incorporating carbon credits, indicate the economic viability of using bio-naphtha for polymer-grade olefin and BTX production, with product costs comparable to market prices.

Xu, Shuang↗
NASA NTRS1997

The Effect of Gravity on the Combustion of Bulk Metals

In recent years, metal combustion studies at the University of Colorado have focused on the effects of gravity (g) on the ignition and burning behavior of bulk metals. The impetus behind this effort is the understanding of the ignition conditions and flammability properties of structural metals found in oxygen (O,sub>2 ) systems for space applications. Since spacecraft are subjected to higher-than-1g loads during launch and reentry and to a zero-gravity environment while in orbit, the study of ignition and combustion of bulk metals at different gravitational accelerations is of great practical concern. From the scientific standpoint, studies conducted under low gravity conditions provide simplified boundary conditions, since buoyancy is removed, and make possible the identification of fundamental ignition and combustion mechanisms. This investigation is intended to provide experimental verification of the influence of natural convection on the burning behavior of metals. In addition, the study offers the first findings of the influence of gravity on ignition of bulk metals and on the combustion mechanism and structure of metal-oxygen, vapor-phase diffusion flames in a buoyancy-free environment. Titanium (Ti) and magnesium (Mg) metals were chosen because of their importance as elements of structural materials and their simple chemical composition-pure metals instead of multicomponent alloys to simplify chemical and spectroscopic analyses. In addition, these elements present the two different combustion modes observed in metals: heterogeneous or surface burning (for Ti) and homogeneous or gas-phase reaction (for Mg). Finally, Mg, Ti, and their oxides exhibit a wide range of thermophysical and chemical properties. Metal surface temperature profiles, critical and ignition temperatures, propagation rates, burning times, and spectroscopic measurements are obtained under normal and reduced gravity. Visual evidence of all phenomena is provided by high-speed photography.

Melvyn C Branch↗
DOE OSTI2026

Modern insights into the mechanisms of neptunium oxalate decomposition

Neptunium oxalate (Np(C 2 O 4 ) 2 ·6H 2 O) is a historically relevant solid phase used in nuclear processing as a precursor for neptunium dioxide (NpO 2 ). Although Np oxalate has been synthesized and used for NpO 2 production for decades, the thermal decomposition mechanism of this phase remains poorly understood and has not been evaluated in over 30 years. Conflicting reports in historical literature suggest either a direct conversion from anhydrous oxalate to NpO 2 or a decomposition that includes the formation of Np carbonate or oxidized Np intermediate phases. In this work, we reexamine the decomposition pathway of Np(C 2 O 4 ) 2 ·6H 2 O using thermal analysis coupled with evolved gas analysis and temperature-dependent Raman spectroscopy to elucidate decomposition mechanisms and intermediate phases using modern analytical techniques. Thermal analysis revealed a three-stage decomposition process, including dehydration below 200 °C, oxalate breakdown between 170 and 370 °C, and NpO 2 formation by 500 °C. However, an unidentified plateau in the thermal data was observed during measurements. Raman spectroscopy confirmed the stages of decomposition, and in the analysis of potential intermediate phases, no carbonate phases or Np 2 O 5 were identified. Raman data suggest that residual oxalate or nonstoichiometric oxide are present during decomposition before pure NpO 2 is formed. These findings clarify aspects of the Np oxalate decomposition mechanism and address longstanding discrepancies in the literature, with a specific focus on Np-specific materials chemistry.

Lawson, Kathryn M. [Oak Ridge National Laboratory ↗
NASA NTRS1994

Primary battery design and safety guidelines handbook

This handbook provides engineers and safety personnel with guidelines for the safe design or selection and use of primary batteries in spaceflight programs. Types of primary batteries described are silver oxide zinc alkaline, carbon-zinc, zinc-air alkaline, manganese dioxide-zionc alkaline, mercuric oxide-zinc alkaline, and lithium anode cells. Along with typical applications, the discussions of the individual battery types include electrochemistry, construction, capacities and configurations, and appropriate safety measures. A chapter on general battery safety covers hazard sources and controls applicable to all battery types. Guidelines are given for qualification and acceptance testing that should precede space applications. Permissible failure levels for NASA applications are discussed.

Bragg, Bobby J.↗