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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 199 records · Page 11
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2025

CalderaCast User Manual Version 1.0

CalderaCast is a user-friendly web-based tool for electrical-load forecast, providing stakeholders with a fully customizable decision-support framework that estimates the likely power draw from a possible future electric-vehicle (EV) charging station at a given location on a given day along an alternative fuel corridor (AFC). These EV charging profiles are accurately modeled in CalderaCast using the Caldera software framework developed by Idaho National Laboratories (INL), reflecting the realistic charging levels observed in actual charge events. This tool was developed as part of the National Electric Vehicle Infrastructure (NEVI) program, which is quickly generating substantial interest from would-be charging station operators (CSO), large and small electric utilities, and state transportation planners, some of whom had not seriously considered EV charging previously. All these entities—with or without background in EV infrastructure—must estimate the electricity load that a proposed charging station will generate. This load forecast is critically important for a utility to properly assess the capacity of their distribution network to support the proposed station or properly size grid upgrades for potential load growth due to future EV adoption, vehicle technology improvements, or station growth. This document describes each aspect of the CalderaCast tool and provides guidance to users who are interested in utilizing the tool for their work.

24 - POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗
DOE OSTI2025

Divertor Plasma Detachment Control Neural Network

DivControlNN is a state-of-the-art software tool that leverages advanced machine learning techniques to predict and control divertor plasma behavior in fusion reactors. Plasma, a highly energetic and electrically charged gas, requires meticulous management to protect reactor components and maintain optimal energy production. Conventional simulation methods, although extremely detailed, typically demand extensive computational time-making them unsuitable for real-time control scenarios. DivControlNN addresses this challenge by learning from tens of thousands of high-fidelity simulations, thereby creating a rapid surrogate model that can deliver near-instantaneous predictions. At the core of its functionality is a sophisticated technique known as latent space mapping, which condenses complex, high-dimensional plasma data into a compact, lower-dimensional representation. This streamlined representation enables the system to quickly forecast essential plasma properties and determine the precise conditions required for effective detachment. Detachment is a crucial process in which the plasma is cooled before reaching the divertor plates, thereby reducing heat loads and mitigating material erosion. In recent experiments conducted on the KSTAR tokamak in South Korea, DivControlNN successfully guided the detachment process without any fine-tuning-even when applied to a new tungsten divertor configuration. By achieving a computational speed-up of over one hundred million times compared to traditional simulation methods while maintaining low prediction errors, DivControlNN stands to significantly enhance real-time control and diagnostic capabilities in future fusion reactors. This breakthrough paves the way for safer, more reliable reactor operation and represents a major advancement toward realizing fusion energy as a practical, sustainable, and clean power source.

Xu, Xueqiao [Lawrence Livermore National Laborator↗
DOE OSTI2024

LINAC Electrical Cabinets - Structural Analysis

Along LINAC s downstream path is a floor containing various cabinets above the LINAC. Of the dozens of cabinets are 4 specific cabinet types: PFN (pulse-forming network) Module, PFN Power Supply, Water Skid, and Marx. Each of these cabinets may contain some of the various contents that include electronics, wiring, pipe lines, circuits, conduits. In addition, high voltage and flowing fluids are also present within the cabinets. Occasionally, Lab Technicians perform maintenance and inspections of the cabinets and need to access every part, including the top section that is subject to the weight of the technician standing on top. To ensure the cabinet is structurally safe, a CAD model will be developed for each cabinet and a Finite Element Analysis (FEA) will be performed on each cabinet to confirm it is safe to stand on.

Blas, Efren↗
DOE OSTI2024

LINAC Electrical Cabinet - Structural Analysis

Along LINAC s downstream path is a floor containing various cabinets above the LINAC. Of the dozens of cabinets are 4 specific cabinet types: PFN (pulse-forming network) Module, PFN Power Supply, Water Skid, and Marx. Each of these cabinets may contain some of the various contents that include electronics, wiring, circuits, and conduits. In addition, high voltage and low conductivity water (LCW) piping are also present within the cabinets. Occasionally, Lab Technicians perform maintenance and inspections of the cabinets and need to access every part, including the top section that is subject to the weight of the technician standing on top. To ensure the cabinet is structurally safe, a CAD model was developed for each cabinet and a Finite Element Analysis (FEA) was performed on each cabinet to confirm it is safe to stand on.

Blas, Efren↗
DOE OSTI2026

Ion Transport in Charged Membranes: Linking Electric-Field-Driven Mechanisms to Pore Size via Perturbation Analysis

Ion-exchange membranes are a critical component in electrochemical systems. Nevertheless, the understanding and modeling of ion transport within these porous structures have been limited by particular complexity reductions, either ignoring the dimensionality of their porous network architecture or imposing geometric assumptions (i.e., overlapping double layers). Before addressing this morphology-transport gap, a framework that relates the driving forces of transport to the geometry of a single pore is required. In this work, our modeling domain consists of a two-dimensional single pore with charged walls, connecting two identical electrolyte reservoirs. Using the Poisson-Nernst-Planck equations and regular perturbation theory, we decouple the electric fields and analyze the driving forces of ion transport, specifically electromigration and induced electroosmosis within the pore. These processes are described as analytical functions of the interaction aspect ratio, ?, defined as the ratio of the pore radius to the Debye length. Using this parameter, our study (i) describes the interplay between electromigrative and electroosmotic mechanisms that set ionic conductivity, (ii) identifies a dimensionless group of intrinsic electrolyte properties that indicates the predominant driving force, and (iii) provides a qualitative, confinement-dependent perspective on selectivity in ion-conducting membranes.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2024

Promoting electrochemical rates by concurrent ionic-electronic conductivity enhancement in high mass loading cathode electrode

Enhancing the fast charging capacity of thick electrodes with high mass loading is imperative in expediting the widespread adoption of electric vehicles. Nonetheless, the insufficient charge transfer kinetics of thick electrodes hinder the movement of effective electrons and ions, hence diminishing capacity at high current rates. In this work, we applied sustainable and biodegradable cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) as electrode additives. It is the first time to simultaneously improve the electronic conductivity by optimizing the carbon dispersion and establishing electron transfer networks, as well as boosting the ionic conductivity of electrodes by shortening the ion transfer pathway. Specifically, the LiNi 0.6 Mn 0.2 Co 0.2 O 2 electrodes incorporating 1% dual functional CNCs additive exhibit improved effective electrical conductivity from 0.11 to 0.16 S/m and risen effective ionic conductivity from 0.36 to 0.62 S/m, in comparison to counterpart electrodes without CNCs. Therefore, the 1% CNC electrode with a high mass loading of 27.0 mg/cm 2 delivers a discharge capacity of 128 mAh/g at 1 C, which is superior to that of the CNC-free electrodes (95 mAh/g). In short, this study presents a novel environmentally friendly, economically viable, and dual-functional electrode additive that enhances both electronic and ionic conductivities with the aim of facilitating the widespread adoption of fast-charging high mass loading electrodes.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2024

Application Guide for the Cyber-Resilient Design Framework for Hybrid Systems

As the energy landscape evolves, hybrid power plants—integrating multiple renewable energy sources (e.g., solar, wind, and battery storage) with the bulk power electric system—play a crucial role in meeting growing energy demands. However, with a hybrid power plant’s increased number of components, complex network connectivity and digitization of controls, these systems face growing cybersecurity risks. To help mitigate these risks, Idaho National Laboratory (INL) presents this application guide specifically designed for operators and systems engineers to evaluate the cybersecurity resilience of their hybrid power plant’s design.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2025

Ionic Associations and Hydration in the Electrical Double Layer of Water-in-Salt Electrolytes

Water-in-Salt-Electrolytes (WiSEs) are an exciting class of concentrated electrolytes finding applications in energy storage devices because of their expanded electrochemical stability window, good conductivity and cation transference number, and fire-extinguishing properties. These distinct properties are thought to originate from the presence of an anion-dominated ionic network and interpenetrating water channels for cation transport, which indicates that associations in WiSEs are crucial to understanding their properties. Currently, associations have mainly been investigated in the bulk, while little attention has been given to the electrolyte structure near electrified interfaces. Here, we develop a theory for the electrical double layer (EDL) of WiSEs, where we consistently account for the thermoreversible associations of species into Cayley tree aggregates. The theory predicts an asymmetric structure of the EDL. At negative voltages, hydrated Li + dominates, and cluster aggregation is initially slightly enhanced before disintegration at larger voltages. At positive voltages, when compared to the bulk, clusters are strictly diminished. Performing atomistic molecular dynamics (MD) simulations of the EDL of WiSE provides EDL data for validation and bulk data for parametrization of our theory. Validating the predictions of our theory against MD showed good qualitative agreement. Furthermore, we performed electrochemical impedance measurements to determine the differential capacitance of the studied LiTFSI WiSE and also found reasonable agreement with our theory. Overall, the developed approach can be used to investigate ionic aggregation and solvation effects in the EDL, which, among other properties, can be used to understand the precursors for solid-electrolyte interphase formation.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2024

Modeling Framework for the Assessment of a Sustainable Hydrogen Production and Supply Chain Network in California

The cost-effective and sustainable deployment of hydrogen supply and demand networks, especially in large economic regions like California, can be challenging considering the spatial-temporal availability and variability of the different actors across the network such as production processes, distribution modes, and end-users. In this presentation, we will provide an overview and demonstration of a modeling framework used to assess the environmental, economic, and human health impacts of plausible hydrogen production and supply chain networks in California. Scenarios focus on green hydrogen production pathways using water electrolysis and biomass gasification. End-use applications included in the model are transit, medium and heavy-duty trucking, port authorities, and power and aviation companies that currently consume natural gas, diesel, and aviation fuel for their day-to-day operation. Representative locations for hydrogen production and end-use are based on recent projections of the hydrogen economy in California. All mass and energy flows, as well as estimated emissions, are based on H2A process model designs and projections of technology performance, literature review, and LBNL process, economic and life cycle modeling, and not on company data for the sake of this presentation. Human health impacts are included following methodologies developed for the University of California Irvine HyDeal project. Life cycle phases associated with hydrogen production include feedstock preparation (water and biomass), energy production and consumption (renewable, grid, and combination of renewable and grid electricity), maintenance (chemical utilization in electrolysis and natural gas combustion in gasification), carbon sequestration, hydrogen storage (compression and liquefaction), and distribution (truck and pipeline). We apply the framework utilizing California specific emission factors, financial data, and human health damages and explore the impact of network characteristics on results. Example variations include: the inclusion of policy incentives or not, different representations of the electricity grid and source, electrolysis versus gasification versus combinations of both for production, liquefaction versus compression based on producer capacity cutoffs, transportation truck versus pipeline based on existing infrastructure, and ultimate end use. Comparison of these different scenarios can help inform future projects by demonstrating the trade-offs among environmental, economic, and human health impacts. This model, automated in R, is a starting platform upon which new analysis, modeling capabilities, locations, and emission factors can be rapidly tested and integrated.

Zaki, Mohammed Tamim↗
DOE OSTI2026

Analysis and Overview of Hybrid Wired and Wireless Bi-Directional EV Charger Systems

Here, this paper analyzes and overviews hybrid wired and wireless bi-directional Electric Vehicle (EV) charging systems with a primary focus on resonant compensation methods that enable a unified power conversion architecture. Four compensation configurations based on series–series and LCC–LCC resonant networks are systematically evaluated for both wired transformer-based and wireless coupler-based operation. The analysis examines how coupling conditions, resonant component selection, and auxiliary compensation tuning influence voltage gain characteristics, resonant tank current magnitude and phase, and operating frequency requirements. Normalized frequency-domain results are presented to directly compare reactive current behavior and voltage regulation capability under wired and wireless operating conditions. A 60 kW bi-directional charger case study is used to demonstrate the feasibility of retaining a common hardware platform while accommodating distinct coupling scenarios through compensation tuning rather than structural modification. The presented results provide design-oriented insights into resonant network selection and compensation strategies for scalable and flexible hybrid EV charging systems.

Hybrid↗
DOE OSTI2024

Coal-derived conductive pavement for winter de-icing: prototype, modeling, and simulation

Existing pavement de-icing methods result in high installation and maintenance costs, traffic delays, excessive weariness and corrosion, and negative environmental and safety impacts. To overcome these challenges, this paper presents an innovative pathway to designing and constructing smart self-heating pavements using a low-cost coal-char bearing asphalt material. The conductive asphalt incorporates coal char, i.e., a key byproduct of the coal pyrolysis process, into the Stone Mastic Asphalt (SMA) mixture. This asphalt containing coal-derived solid carbon exhibits highly tailorable electrical conductivity, satisfactory mechanical and thermophysical properties, and superior cost-efficiency as compared to other conductive pavement materials. The de-icing performance was also demonstrated by laboratory experiments on a bench-scale prototype. Furthermore, an efficient thermal network model was developed and validated by experiments to investigate the transient thermal behavior and energy performance of the Ohmic heating pavement system. Furthermore, the whole-year energy simulation case studies were conducted on a bridge pavement with an annual energy use of 24.6–1444.8 kWh/m 2 , showcasing its potential in field applications across cool humid, cold humid, and subarctic/arctic climate zones.

42 ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2024

Grid-Ready Energy Analytics Training with Data (“GREAT with Data”)

GridEd is a collaborative educational initiative consisting of the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), 5 Partner Universities (Stony Brook University, The University of Texas at Austin, University of California – Riverside, Virginia Tech, Washington State University), and participating industry sponsors. This educational initiative focuses on developing and training the next generation of power engineers so they can help shape the electric grid of the future by anticipating and fulfilling the needs of changing electric industry requirements. GridEd is leveraging electric industry research to educate a future electric grid workforce by empowering new and continuing education students, not only to become competent and well-informed engineers, but also to participate and influence major technological, social, and policy decisions that address critical global challenges. GridEd’s activities are centered around four core pillars: Enhancement of university power systems engineering curricula; Professional development and training for a diverse electric industry workforce; Stimulating students to join the movement for the next generation of power engineers, and; Improve workforce development efforts in the electric utility industry. Major accomplishments over the course of the project were: Over 50 unique professional short courses were delivered by more than 30 instructors across the GridEd network; Over 3,600 unique learners, many who took multiple courses, received more than 27,000 professional development hours (PDH) and over 1,000 certificates of completion; Approximately 2,900 unique learners undertook a course that was offered LIVE online or in-person; Approximately 700 unique learners undertook a course that was offered as computer-based training (CBT); Over 35 unique university courses were delivered by more than 30 instructors to 1,500 university students across the GridEd network; One-hundred-and-fifty-seven (157) students were funded to completed 43 student projects in topics of power systems and data science, and; Six (6) Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) recruited as Affiliate Universities via Utility Partners. The professional training initiative and workforce development activities launched by this project will be sustained through EPRI’s collaborative business model with industry. Stimulating students to join the power engineering workforce of the future and the enhancement of tertiary training may continue to need government support.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2025

A method for assessing economic, environmental, and reliability tradeoffs of interregional transmission connecting ERCOT (the Texas grid) to the eastern and western grids

Reliable development of the power grid is an evolving concern for humanity due to extreme weather that frequently threatens power sector infrastructure. The state of Texas is a uniquely structured testbed for grid planners to study when looking for solutions to development, innovation, and overcoming such challenges. Because of its size and islanded structure, Texas is small enough to model, but big enough to matter. Texas is a global leader in energy production, energy consumption, and maintains an unusually diverse fuel mix. In addition, the state has experienced winter freezes, heat waves, wind storms, droughts and floods that have threatened power sector infrastructure or caused recent blackouts and calls for demand side conservation. One of the most devastating of these events was the North American winter storm, dubbed “Winter Storm Uri” by the Weather Channel, that froze the region in February 2021 and led to an extended power outage event that put the majority of Texan residents in darkness for days. While preparing to avoid such outage events in the future, various tools have been proposed to improve grid reliability, including energy efficiency, demand response, and distributed energy resources. An additional option would be to develop interregional transmission that connects the Texas grid to other national grids. To assess the merits of this idea, we developed a novel, universally-applicable and internationally-relevant framework to study how the Texas grid would evolve alongside access to various interregional ties. This method allows us to stress the synthetic grid structure and analyze how it would respond to the shock of a simulated winter storm event. Our method leverages open-source modeling tools, such as PowerGenome, pyGRETA, and GenX to synthesize unique zonal grid data, construct a consolidated network of model regions, and simulate different developmental pathways of capacity expansion and operational dispatch. We demonstrate our method with an analysis connecting the Electric Reliability Council of Texas (ERCOT), the grid that serves most of Texas, the Western Electricity Coordinating Council (WECC), the grid that serves the western half of the contiguous U.S., and the Eastern Interconnect, the grid that serves the eastern half of the contiguous U.S. Our results indicate that the cost-optimal capacity of interregional transmission connecting the ERCOT grid to other grids lies between 9–13 GW assuming baseline conditions. Building this amount of connecting capacity in one or multiple directions lowers the costs and emissions of development and operation by up to $16 billion and 257 million metric tonnes (MMT) respectively. Additionally, our results show that the interregional connections between ERCOT and other national grids reduce the amount of total load shed required through mild winter storm events. However, our results also show that there is a threshold of very extreme winter storm conditions, spanning multiple service areas, above which the connections exacerbate resource adequacy problems. Therefore, the results indicate that the connections need to be carefully planned alongside the rest of the grid infrastructure to avoid over-reliance on specific resources or technology options.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗
DOE OSTI2025

InterGraph-CPS: A Graph-Theoretic Approach to Characterize Cross-Domain Cyber-Physical Interdependencies and Uncertainties in Electric Grid Systems for Improved Decision-Making in Operation and Response

Critical infrastructure systems such as the electric grid are increasingly cyber-physical; yet, despite the cyber-physical characteristics of critical infrastructure systems, the physical process system and communication/control network system are traditionally analyzed in siloes. As these systems become more cyber-physical, it is crucial that models and methods are available to assess the cyber physical system (CPS) interdependencies, characteristics, and event propagation for improved planning, operation, and response. Thus, we proposed an integrated structural and temporal CPS interdependency analysis framework, InterGraph-CPS, that provides insight into the CPS function during normal operation as well as disturbances. This integrated structural and temporal interdependency framework is uniquely designed for assessing CPSs by account for the challenges of analyzing cyber and physical data streams together due to data availability, data type, and time scale differences. By leveraging both structural (e.g., graph analysis) and temporal (e.g., data analytics) techniques, different CPS behaviors and configurations can be accounted for.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗
DOE OSTI2026

Field Verification of Grid-Forming Inverter-Based Power Plant Performance for Transmission System Reliability

This report describes some examples of the operation of two grid-forming (GFM) inverter-based photovoltaic-battery hybrid power plants connected to the electric system of the island of Kauai in Hawaii. Both plants are photovoltaic power plants with battery energy storage and are connected to the networked transmission system operated by Kauai Island Utility Cooperative (KIUC), along with several other power plants including an oil-fired plant, diesel generators, small hydroelectric plants, a biofuel plant, and several other photovoltaic plants.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2026

Three-Dimensional Grid Visualization for Planning Activities: A Dubai Case Study

National Laboratory of the Rockies (NLR), in collaboration with the Dubai Electricity and Water Authority (DEWA) and Infra-X, has undertaken the Energy Visualization Analysis Project. The aim of this project is to enhance analytical and 3D visualization capabilities for distribution network planning and renewable energy integration. As modern grid continues to evolve with large-scale solar PV deployment and emerging distributed energy resources (DERs), the ability to effectively analyze, visualize, and communicate complex grid behaviors has become increasingly critical. The project focuses on developing empirical use cases based on real distribution feeder data and engineering workflows, ensuring the outcomes are directly aligned with operational environment. Through time-series power flow simulations and nodal hosting capacity analysis, the study quantifies the impacts of high PV penetration on voltage and thermal limits within representative 11 kV feeders. These analyses identify specific nodes and conditions where DER integration challenges arise. Furthermore, a Battery Energy Storage System (BESS) optimization algorithm was applied to determine the optimal size and placement of storage systems that can mitigate network constraints and enhance hosting capacity. The comparative results between base-case and BESS-augmented scenarios clearly demonstrate improvements in network stability and load management efficiency. In parallel, the NLR team developed an immersive 3D visualization framework, enabling interactive exploration of grid simulations using commodity head-mounted display (HMD) systems. This framework transforms conventional 2D simulation data into spatially intuitive visual environments - allowing engineers to analyze feeder conditions, PV hosting potential, and BESS effects in real time. This report represents the first foundational phase in establishing a visualization-driven analytical ecosystem. It provides a methodological foundation for data integration, visualization architecture, and simulation-based decision support, paving the way for large-scale adoption of immersive visualization across DEWA's Smart Grid Initiative, R&D activities, and future network resilience studies.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗
DOE OSTI2025

Scaling microstructural processes in the sintering of ionic ceramics

A multi-scale framework, combining a multiphase field formulation and large deformation mechanics, was developed as a stepping stone to perform the data analytics of the microstructural level kinetics of a sintering solid. Relevant microstructural information from this framework, such as grain, stress, and porosity statistics, was scaled up to describe the macroscopic level sintering kinetics. Here, the developed formulation was applied to describe the electric field assisted sintering of Y 2 O 3 . Microstructural inhomogeneities in a multi-granular solid result in the formation of a field of compressive stress networks, which interleave with low compression and weakly tensile regions, defining a scaffolding for sintering concentration regions to develop. A Poisson effect-induced lateral stress network is also naturally self-induced as a result of the mechanical constraints imposed by the sintering apparatus. For long sintering times, localized shear stresses enhancing mass flow along grain boundaries and internal surfaces develop. Three-sided pores are removed by either vacancy transport to the surrounding pores, or move towards the external surfaces through grain boundary diffusion. Four- and higher order-sided pores stabilize because an equal amount of vacancies are gained and lost through the connecting grain boundaries. Grain dewetting contributes to pore coalescence, suggesting that pore kinetics and grain growth are coupled and should be analyzed in concert. The combined sintering and grain growth kinetics define six regimes of sintering behavior: (1) T, the transient regime; (2) E$_Υ$, the surface energy dominated, early sintering regime, where the grain growth exponent, p = 1, and the stress concentration factor, $f$ ~ $1/\hat{ρ}^{4.6}$; (3) E S , the stress dominated, early sintering regime, where p = 1 and $f$ ~ $1/\hat{ρ}^{4}$; (4) I$_Υ$, the surface energy dominated, intermediate sintering regime, where p = 2 and $f$ ~ $1/\hat{ρ}^{4.6}$; (5) I S , the stress dominated, intermediate sintering regime, where p = 2 and $f$ ~ $1/\hat{ρ}^{4}$; and (6) L, the late sintering regime, where p = 3 and $f$ ~ 1. At the macroscopic level, the rapid densification and suppression of grain growth observed in the electric field assisted sintering process is a consequence of the compounding effects of the underlying stress-, transport-, and interfacial-energy-induced energy minimization kinetics, as predicted by the multi-scale framework.

11 - NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗
DOE OSTI2026

Surfactant Effects on Carbon Black Slurries for Aqueous Flow-Electrode Applications

Aqueous carbon black (CB) slurries are promising for flow-electrode applications due to their low cost and high electrical conductivity. Here, in this study, we investigate the impact of introducing a nonionic surfactant (Tween 20) on the rheological and electrical properties of 5 wt % Vulcan XC72R CB slurries in a 50 mM NaCl aqueous solution. We observe a Tween 20 critical concentration around 1.2 wt % that triggers an abrupt transition from a conductive gel to a high-resistance Newtonian fluid. This sudden network collapse coincides with a 250-fold reduction in settled mass, a 1–2 order of magnitude drop in viscosity, and a nearly 100-fold decrease in slurry conductivity. Centrifuged pellet conductivity measurements support the conclusion that this performance loss is largely due to the destruction of the gel network, rather than increased particle-to-particle resistance. SEM imaging suggests that the network is built from large 10 to 50 μm agglomerates that are fully dissolved above the critical surfactant concentration. We found that subcritical surfactant addition improved slurry shelf stability over 90 days, but that electrochemical cell testing revealed progressive performance degradation during operation. These results highlight the need for strategies that maximize long-term electrical conductivity without compromising viscosity, sedimentation stability, or resistance to accumulation on internal surfaces.

Materials science↗