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DOE OSTI2025

Final Technical Report of a Feasibility Investigation of a Hydropower Flexibility Upgrade Kit

The project studied the feasibility of a concept for a flexibility upgrade kit called h-Dynamyk to improve the flexibility of U.S. hydropower plants and assessed its potential impact on the U.S. hydropower industry. This concept addresses the growing need for grid flexibility amid rising renewable energy adoption, such as wind and solar, which often introduce intermittency. The upgrade kit is intended to address challenges posed by aging turbine designs in meeting modern grid demands for flexibility services like frequency response, voltage control, spinning reserve, and black-start capabilities. Key features of the h-Dynamyk kit include siphon turbine assemblies, medium-voltage variable frequency drives (VFDs), and smart controls integrated with plant systems to optimize operations and extend equipment life. This nine-month discovery project successfully achieved its objectives by defining a baseline design and performance metrics for the h-Dynamyk flexibility upgrade kit, analyzing this baseline, and incorporating lessons learned from this analysis into a modified set of metrics and recommendations for future design and testing, which were further guided by field site studies.

13 HYDRO ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2025

Securing Grid Communications Infrastructure: Addressing Gaps Beyond NERC CIP Facility Perimeters

The North American electric grid relies on a complex communications infrastructure that extends beyond facility perimeters traditionally covered by NERC Critical Infrastructure Protection (CIP) standards. While CIP requirements have significantly strengthened cybersecurity within Electronic Security Perimeters, many operational communications—such as those between control centers, substations, and third-party networks—fall outside current regulatory scope. As grid modernization introduces new technologies and connectivity models, these external pathways present evolving security challenges. This brief explores the nature of these challenges, including emerging attack vectors and supply chain considerations, and highlights how ongoing grid transformation increases exposure to sophisticated threats. It outlines practical strategies and policy options to complement existing standards, such as expanding secure communications practices, enhancing supply chain transparency, and fostering collaboration among federal, state, and industry stakeholders. Near-term actions like encryption, authentication, and contractual safeguards can help reduce risk while longer-term frameworks are developed to ensure resilient and secure grid operations.

24 - POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗
DOE OSTI2019

Intelligent load pattern modeling and denoising using improved variational mode decomposition for various calendar periods

This paper proposes a novel approach to identify the load patterns considering calendar impact and denoising process, which advances the state of art of load identification and load forecasting to a more flexible and adaptive extent by revealing the correlation between load profile and the substantial influence factors. With the rapid development and the promising application of energy intemet and grid modernization, the accurate load modeling and forecasting especially by load pattern modeling (LPM) have become more and more critical to observe and estimate load profile so as to optimize the operation efficiency of the power grid. Traditional methods mostly focus on the static LPM itself which are unable to account the non-linear and highly dynamic load fluctuations in order to balance the demand of the power grid during various calendar period (VCP) scheduling. In this paper, a load pattern modeling method for power grid considering the impact of typical calendar effects is proposed using a combination of improved variational mode decomposition (IVMD) and deep belief network (DBN) algorithm. Firstly, an index of load curve curvature (LCC) is proposed to improve the selection of value K in the conventional VMD algorithm. The value K of the intrinsic modality is determined by adopting LCC to better quantify the average instantaneous frequency of the modal decomposition of the VMD and to reduce the elevated stochasticity of k. Secondly, an optimization formulation is developed based on adaptive segmented loop decomposition of the typical correlation coefficient to suppress the edge effect in VMD decomposition, which would enable the reconstructed curve to incorporate the variabilities from the initial data. Finally, the IVMD and DBN algorithms are jointly implemented to optimize the accuracy of VCP load pattern modeling curve regression. Numerical examples have been performed with the results proving that the proposed method significantly outperforms the state-of-art in reducing the modeling error of VCP load curve, improving the overall forecasting accuracy, and reducing load dispatching cost.

deep belief network↗
DOE OSTI2023

Data Request for the Distribution Grid Atlas

Model-based, distribution powerflow analysis is a foundational component of system planning and grid modernization efforts, but data security is an impediment to collaboration among utility engineers, researchers, developers, community members, and other stakeholders. Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL) and the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) are partnering to develop the new Distribution Grid Atlas - a publicly available catalog of realistic, geographically relevant, representative distribution feeder models without sensitive geographic information, customer data, or disclosure of utility models. We are looking for utilities to share data for the Distribution Grid Atlas.

distribution↗
DOE OSTI2021

Sensitivity of Infrastructure Sectors to the Disruption of Commercial Electric Power

Electric power is crucial to the function of other infrastructures, as well as to the stability of the economy and the social order. Disruption of commercial electric power service, even for brief periods of time, can create significant consequences to the function of other sectors, and make living in some environments untenable. This analysis, conducted in 2017 for the United States Department of Energy (DOE) as part of the Grid Modernization Laboratory Consortium (GMLC) Initiative, focuses on describing the function of each of the other infrastructure sectors and subsectors, with an eye towards those elements of these sectors that depend on primary electric power service through the commercial electric power grid. It leverages the experience of Sandia analysts in analyzing historical disruptive events, and from the development of capabilities designed to identify the physical, logical, and geographic connectivity between infrastructures. The analysis goes on to identify alternatives for the provision of primary electric power service, and the redundancy of said alternatives, to provide a picture of the sector’s ability to withstand an extended disruption.

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DOE OSTI2026

Three-Dimensional Grid Visualization for Planning Activities: A Dubai Case Study

National Laboratory of the Rockies (NLR), in collaboration with the Dubai Electricity and Water Authority (DEWA) and Infra-X, has undertaken the Energy Visualization Analysis Project. The aim of this project is to enhance analytical and 3D visualization capabilities for distribution network planning and renewable energy integration. As modern grid continues to evolve with large-scale solar PV deployment and emerging distributed energy resources (DERs), the ability to effectively analyze, visualize, and communicate complex grid behaviors has become increasingly critical. The project focuses on developing empirical use cases based on real distribution feeder data and engineering workflows, ensuring the outcomes are directly aligned with operational environment. Through time-series power flow simulations and nodal hosting capacity analysis, the study quantifies the impacts of high PV penetration on voltage and thermal limits within representative 11 kV feeders. These analyses identify specific nodes and conditions where DER integration challenges arise. Furthermore, a Battery Energy Storage System (BESS) optimization algorithm was applied to determine the optimal size and placement of storage systems that can mitigate network constraints and enhance hosting capacity. The comparative results between base-case and BESS-augmented scenarios clearly demonstrate improvements in network stability and load management efficiency. In parallel, the NLR team developed an immersive 3D visualization framework, enabling interactive exploration of grid simulations using commodity head-mounted display (HMD) systems. This framework transforms conventional 2D simulation data into spatially intuitive visual environments - allowing engineers to analyze feeder conditions, PV hosting potential, and BESS effects in real time. This report represents the first foundational phase in establishing a visualization-driven analytical ecosystem. It provides a methodological foundation for data integration, visualization architecture, and simulation-based decision support, paving the way for large-scale adoption of immersive visualization across DEWA's Smart Grid Initiative, R&D activities, and future network resilience studies.

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DOE OSTI2016

Smarter Grid Solutions | National Renewable Energy Laboratory: Active Management Integration: June 2015 - November 2016

This report presents the project results for the NREL INTEGRATE demonstration project: Active Network Management (ANM) Integration. Consistent with the INTEGRATE program's objective of increasing the grid's clean energy hosting capacity and providing grid services in a holistic manner, the project demonstrated the use of ANM to enable very high penetrations of solar PV and wind energy systems. Results obtained using a representative North American distribution system showed ANM's autonomous distributed control doubled the interconnected wind and solar systems by managing thermal and voltage constraints in real-time. These generators flexibly interconnected to the grid via ANM's end-to-end control architecture, and were managed and coordinated with other smart distributed energy resources (DER; e.g. EVs, battery ESS, controllable load) to unlock the grid's dynamic hosting capacity. As a smart grid application to standardize grid integration of diverse renewable generation sources, ANM provides the industry with a scalable, cost-effective alternative to traditional transmission and distribution (T&D) reinforcements. This project considered three use cases of the application of ANM: a Smart Home demonstration of ANM control of residential scale devices (PV, EV, and battery ESS); a Smart Campus demonstration of high penetration megawatt-scale DER (PV, EVs, battery ESS, and controllable load) behind a single point-of-common-coupling (PCC), and a Smart Distribution demonstration that combined prior use cases along with additional community/utility-scale DER at very high aggregate penetration levels. The Smart Distribution use case provided an integrated perspective of ANM across all distribution grid DER device scales (incorporating aggregated Smart Homes and the Smart Campus) in order to showcase how these devices can support smart grid services to manage DER related constraints in a safe and reliable manner; and likewise how ANM integrates with grid modernization initiatives. The ANM system was deployed in NREL's Energy Systems Integration Facility (ESIF), and project industry advisors attended an on-site demonstration and a set of workshops in order to review project outcomes and evaluate the relevance of ANM for increasing the grid hosting capacity. The outcomes of this effort include an assessment of opportunities for field deployment of ANM to address existing interconnection challenges, as well as consolidating project advisor suggestions for investment in ANM and potential future pilots for more advanced schemes.

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DOE OSTI2021

Grid Architecture Guidance Specification for FAST-DERMS (V.1.0)

This document provides grid architecture guidance to support the Grid Modernization Laboratory Consortium (GMLC) Federated Architecture for Secure and Transactive Distributed Energy Resource Management Solution (FAST-DERMS) project. The FAST-DERMS project seeks to develop an architecture and reference implementation solution that enables the provision of reliable, resilient, and secure transmission and distribution (T&D) grid services through the scalable aggregation and near-real-time management of utility-scale and small-scale distributed energy resources (DERs).

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DOE OSTI2021

Powering Post-COVID-19 Resilient Recovery with Green Stimulus

As the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic spread globally in early 2020, many governments enacted lockdown measures as an initial containment response. These lockdowns, while effective in slowing infection rates, have also had substantial economic consequences. A series of supply and demand shocks, workforce and supply chain disruptions, and other impacts of the pandemic and ensuing lockdowns have upended the livelihoods for much of the world's population. This quick read spotlights how green stimulus plans and other recovery measures can support near-term recovery and enable longer-term power system resilience against future threats. The term “green stimulus” encompasses fiscal measures (i.e., governmental tax and spending actions) that support short-term economic activity that enhances environmental and natural resource quality over a longer term. The deployment of energy efficiency (EE) and renewable energy (RE) technologies, as well as associated initiatives (e.g., grid modernization, electrification of transport, and so on) have been demonstrably effective in providing this kind of short-run economic boost while simultaneously strengthening the resilience of the power sector. Along with green stimulus packages, concurrent action on the regulatory side—for example, the development of green building codes, updating grid interconnection standards, creating programs and marketplaces for demand-side efficiency, and others—can be a force multiplier in ensuring that public spending achieves maximum impact in near-term recovery and long-term power sector transformation

29 ENERGY PLANNING, POLICY, AND ECONOMY↗
DOE OSTI2024

U.S. Department of Energy-National Lab Equity Summit: Grid Planning and Operations (Workshop Report)

This report summarizes the U.S. DOE and national laboratories equity summit that was held on February 5, 2024, and focused on grid planning and operations. The objectives of the summit were to connect DOE and lab researchers working on grid-related equity issues, share information on current and planned grid-related equity projects and initiatives, and inspire and educate participants by hearing from our panelists about solutions and challenges to integrating equity in grid planning and operations. The summit included two panels of industry leaders. The first was a state and community perspectives panel that included representatives from a state public utility commission (Oregon Public Utility Commission), a state energy office (Washington Department of Commerce), a state utility consumer advocate (Connecticut Consumer Counsel), and industry consultants (Elevated Engagement and ArkSpring Consulting). Panelists shared successes they have seen, critical challenges related to equity and grid planning and operations, and other considerations. The second panel addressed utility perspectives and included representatives from two utilities (Commonwealth Edison and Tacoma Power), the National Rural Electric Cooperative (NRECA), and a former utility employee and legal consultant. Panelists discussed the role of the utility concerning equity, the most significant technical and data modeling needs and opportunities, and the role the labs could help advance equity in grid planning and operations. There was also a session on partner organization presentations. Argonne National Laboratory made a short presentation on the Grid Modernization Laboratory Consortium (GMLC) project they are leading on equity-informed power system planning. NARUC, NASEO, and the Clean Energy States Alliance, as partners of the GMLC project also shared updates on relevant activities and resources. During the summit, there were two rounds of lightning presentations by national labs and DOE highlighting research that addresses equity and grid planning and operations (Tables 5 and 6 and slides in the Appendix). The goal of the lightning rounds was to share information between participants to encourage collaboration and leverage ongoing research at labs and DOE. The summit included two interactive exercises where summit participants shared their perspectives on relevant equity projects and initiatives (Table 2), key challenges regarding equity and grid planning and operations (Table 3), and promising innovations or progress (Table 4). At the end of the session, participants were asked to share essential insights from the event (Table 7) and an action they plan to take as a result of the event. Participants agreed that the event was useful in helping them share and learn from each other. The project team plans to use the information from the summit as a starting point to help inform future research and technical assistance. In 2026, another Equity Summit will be held (virtually or in person) as part of the same project to help raise awareness and disseminate research and resources completed during the project's duration.

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DOE OSTI2015

Technology solutions for wind integration in ERCOT

Texas has for more than a decade led all other states in the U.S. with the most wind generation capacity on the U.S. electric grid. The State recognized the value that wind energy could provide, and committed early on to build out the transmission system necessary to move power from the windy regions in West Texas to the major population centers across the state. It also signaled support for renewables on the grid by adopting an aggressive renewable portfolio standard (RPS). The joining of these conditions with favorable Federal tax credits has driven the rapid growth in Texas wind capacity since its small beginning in 2000. In addition to the major transmission grid upgrades, there have been a number of technology and policy improvements that have kept the grid reliable while adding more and more intermittent wind generation. Technology advancements such as better wind forecasting and deployment of a nodal market system have improved the grid efficiency of wind. Successful large scale wind integration into the electric grid, however, continues to pose challenges. The continuing rapid growth in wind energy calls for a number of technology additions that will be needed to reliably accommodate an expected 65% increase in future wind resources. The Center for the Commercialization of Electric Technologies (CCET) recognized this technology challenge in 2009 when it submitted an application for funding of a regional demonstration project under the Recovery Act program administered by the U.S. Department of Energy1. Under that program the administration announced the largest energy grid modernization investment in U.S. history, making available some $3.4 billion in grants to fund development of a broad range of technologies for a more efficient and reliable electric system, including the growth of renewable energy sources like wind and solar. At that time, Texas was (and still is) the nation’s leader in the integration of wind into the grid, and was investing heavily in the infrastructure needed to increase the viability of this important resource. To help Texas and the rest of the nation address the challenges associated with the integration of large amounts of renewables, CCET seized on the federal opportunity to undertake a multi-faceted project aimed at demonstrating the viability of new “smart grid” technologies to facilitate larger amounts of wind energy through better system monitoring capabilities, enhanced operator visualization, and improved load management. In early 2010, CCET was awarded a $27 million grant, half funded by the Department of Energy and half-funded by project participants. With this funding, CCET undertook the project named Discovery Across Texas which has demonstrated how existing and new technologies can better integrate wind power into the state’s grid. The following pages summarize the results of seven technology demonstrations that will help Texas and the nation meet this wind integration challenge.

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DOE OSTI2026

Advanced Computing Annual Report 2025 [Slides]

In Fiscal Year (FY) 2025, the National Laboratory of the Rockies (NLR) continued to advance computing as a cornerstone of energy innovation, expanding the Kestrel high-performance computing (HPC) system to 56 peak petaflops. This growth strengthened Kestrel's role as a national asset for applied energy research, enabling larger, more complex simulations and accelerating the integration of artificial intelligence (AI) methods across the laboratory's computing portfolio. In FY 2025, AI was a component of most projects running on Kestrel, underscoring its central role in modern energy science and engineering. Kestrel supported a broad and diverse set of 507 modeling and simulation projects, engaging 855 researchers across the U.S. Department of Energy's (DOE's) Office of Critical Minerals and Energy Innovation (CMEI) portfolio and other offices, as well as partners from industry, academia, and utilities. These efforts span critical materials discovery, energy systems modeling, grid modernization, advanced manufacturing, and other areas essential to strengthening U.S. energy security and competitiveness. Together, these collaborations produced 708 technical outputs, including 293 peer-reviewed publications, reflecting both the depth and impact of the science enabled by NLR's computing capabilities. This year's report highlights the growing importance and benefit of AI throughout NLR's research programs and features work by early career researchers who are helping shape the future of computing-enabled energy innovation. Explore these sections and the many project successes captured in the pages that follow.

97 MATHEMATICS AND COMPUTING↗
DOE OSTI2026

FY25 Electric Grid Security Annual Report

Sandia’s Electric Grid Security program advances a national vision of energy dominance and accessibility, while applying our national security -emphasis on ensuring of a secure, resilient, and affordable electric system for all users. Our achievements reflect a strategic approach combining technology development; modeling, simulation, and data analytics; and partnered demonstrations and outreach to further the adoption of advanced grid and storage technologies. Our FY25 efforts leverage the strengths of our partnerships—spanning Sandia’s core science and technology competencies as well as external technology leaders—to develop the solutions today which enable the grid of tomorrow. Key accomplishments in this report that support our strategy span our technical program areas and include: • New open-source analytical tools for systems -level planning and optimization, including significant advances to the QuESt analytical environment; • Further advancement of artificial intelligence and machine learning to enhanced grid operations and planning as we rise to the challenge of new large loads; • Development of solid-state power conversion technologies and a new medium-voltage research lab; • New technologies to assess wildfire vulnerabilities and mitigate potential impacts; • Advanced applications of new cybersecurity technologies with industry partners; • Contributions to understanding the impacts of electromagnetic pulses and geomagnetic disturbances on grid components; and • Digital twin development for hybrid microgrids with multiple generators, storage, and loads. This report indicates key areas of research and engagement and summarizes the impact of Sandia’s contributions through notable accomplishments, journal publications, patents, and technical conferences and presentations. It is provided with the hope that readers discover ways we can further team to create our modern grid and apply the outcomes of our efforts. The bulk of work described herein is funded by several offices within the U.S. Department of Energy (USDOE), including the Office of Electricity (OE); Cybersecurity, Energy Security, and Emergency Response (CESER); former offices such as the Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (EERE), the Grid Deployment Office (GDO), the Office of Clean Energy Demonstrations (OCED), and other key programs at USDOE. As we continue to state in these annual reports, the contributors to our successes are too numerous to name here, though our team wishes to express our deep gratitude to the numerous program and project sponsors at the US Department of Energy, who often function equally as technical collaborators; our many partners in industry, academia, utilities, and other national labs; and fellow researchers and business partners at Sandia whose leadership and creativity have enabled the accomplishments described herein.

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DOE OSTI2021

Resilience in an Age of Increasing Electrification

The purpose of this paper is to outline considerations of global electrification trends that include the resultant system-wide and nation-wide impacts. How we incorporate resilience into the electrification plans that transition a nation from conventional energy sources to secure clean energy sources can impact the success of those transitions. Electrification of energy systems has the potential to impact power system planning, emissions, and security; however, little research has been done on comprehensive solutions for incorporating resilience into the electrification process. Research has been conducted on aspects of the energy system and electrification, but not holistically across disciplines and related to the interdependencies of different components of the grid system. This gap in research provides an opportunity for more analysis and a collection of best practices to incorporate resilience into electrification plans. Although clean energy is the goal of an increasing number of nations worldwide, there are many considerations in designing clean energy transitions and increased electrification. Resilience must be factored into clean energy transitions from planning, market design, and policies to modernized grid structures and new, location-specific dispersed energy and energy storage technologies.

clean energy↗
DOE OSTI2018

GMLC Southeast Regional Consortium: Technology Driven Improvements to Power Grid Resiliency

Recognizing that electric grid challenges can differ by geographical regions across the US, the Department of Energy (DOE) created a pioneer regional partnership to provide technical assistance to stakeholders facing grid modernization challenges. The southeast regional teams will transfer technologies developed under DOE auspices to stakeholders for testing, evaluation, and market validation. Regional members will help define critical challenges and pave the way for transition of technologies to the commercial sector. Using the depth and expertise at Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Savannah River National Laboratory, University of Tennessee’s CURENT, CAPER and the Clemson 20 MVA Electrical Grid Laboratory—along with critical industry partners, such as Duke Energy, TVA, Southern Company, EPB, and Santee Cooper—the Southeast Regional Consortium team will conduct collaborative research to advance the state of the grid in the Southeast region and improve power system resiliency to enhance responsiveness, enable faster restoration of power, and increase distributed energy resource (DER) concentrations. This report provides details of the technical research and demonstration projects accomplished by Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) as part of the Southeast Regional Consortium. Specifically, ORNL analyzed the application of optical current and voltage measurements impedance relays which would enable step distance protection to be deployed on distribution systems. This would improve the precision of determining the geographic location of faults, increase network topology flexibility, and allow bi-directional power flow. Next, ORNL deployed time sensitive networking technology on the EPB fiberoptic data network to study the impact of increased sensor traffic on existing supervisory control and data acquisition data. The deterministic latency and high bandwidth were demonstrated by remotely inspecting a substation using a drone with full HD streaming video operated at the EPB Control Center. Finally, a new application-based communication and control system developed at ORNL call CSEISMIC was tested for future deployment on the EPB Control Center microgrid using a hardware-in-the-loop testbed that was also developed at ORNL. The controller was able to successfully optimize ancillary service when the microgrid is connected to the distribution network. The seamless islanding, resynchronization, and reconnection of the microgrid was also demonstrated through the testing.

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DOE OSTI2021

Fast Grid Frequency Support from Distributed Energy Resources

This report describes research related to electric power system frequency support from inverter-coupled distributed energy resources (DERs). This research was initiated under the U.S. Department of Energy’s Grid Modernization Laboratory Consortium (GMLC) and also contains work funded through a Cooperative Research and Development Agreement with Hawaiian Electric. The purpose of this report is to summarize the findings of simulations, hardware testing, power hardware-in-the-loop (PHIL) simulation, and analysis examining the effects of DER frequency support on the Oahu power system. This report also includes recommendations for consideration in the use of DER grid frequency support functionality, and related topics. Note that a previous GMLC Technical Report from this project also provided specific recommendations for the activation of one specific grid frequency support function, frequency-watt control, for overfrequency events in Hawaii. Those recommendations included recommended frequency-watt control settings, which have since been approved by the Hawaii Public Utilities Commission on October 20, 2017, for system-wide activation. This report builds on the previous report by considering not only overfrequency events but also underfrequency events, and by considering distributed energy storage systems in addition to photovoltaic (PV) systems.

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DOE OSTI2023

State Energy Offices’ Engagement in Electric Distribution Planning to Meet State Policy Goals

NASEO and Berkeley Lab released a new publication on State Energy Offices’ Engagement in Electric Distribution Planning to Meet State Policy Goals. State and Territory Energy Offices develop plans, programs, policies, and projects that have a substantial impact on electric distribution systems. They also can participate in distribution system planning (DSP) processes to help ensure that utilities – consumer- and investor-owned – meet the state’s future energy needs. This paper recognizes the wide spectrum of roles that State Energy Offices can play in DSP processes, including planning for distributed energy resources and grid modernization. It highlights various examples of non-regulatory activities by State Energy Offices including planning, conducting studies, convening stakeholder processes, and implementing programs that inform and contribute to distribution system planning. It also provides examples of State Energy Offices’ engagement in proceedings before their respective public utility commissions. As State Energy Offices face myriad challenges associated with meeting state policy goals, preparing for anticipated rates of distributed energy resource deployment, addressing concerns regarding grid reliability and resilience, and recommending and making long-term investment decisions, the examples provided through this guide can serve as a resource in navigating those challenges.

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DOE OSTI2022

Hierarchical Transactive Control of Flexible Building Loads Under Distribution LMP

With grid modernization efforts, future distribution networks, which consist of various distributed generators and flexible loads, will be more flexible and active. All new network components of distributed energy resources (DERs) drive and enable the transition towards a market-based distribution net-work that seeks the optimal allocation of all DERs. To address challenges associated with DERs, one promising solution is to utilize demand-side flexibility of building loads facilitated by demand response (DR) programs and provide ancillary grid services through distribution-level markets. Under this new paradigm, this paper proposes an efficient DR management strategy incorporating emerging price signals of distribution markets, i.e., distribution locational marginal price (DLMP), based on a hierarchical transactive control approach. The proposed approach establishes a two-layer decision-making framework; the upper layer formulates a bilevel model to obtain an optimal demand response (ODR) under DLMP, and the lower layer employs model-free control to dispatch the (aggregated) ODR to individual end users. Numerical case studies using a modified IEEE 33 test network are performed to verify the effectiveness of the proposed approach; load shifting and peak shaving for the distribution system operator and payments’ reduction for end users while maintaining their comfort.

Park, Byungkwon↗