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NASA NTRS2016

Thermal Vacuum Testing of a Helium Loop Heat Pipe for Large Area Cryocooling

Future NASA space telescopes and exploration missions require cryocooling of large areas such as optics, detector arrays, and cryogenic propellant tanks. One device that can potentially be used to provide closed-loop cryocooling is the cryogenic loop heat pipe (CLHP). A CLHP has many advantages over other devices in terms of reduced mass, reduced vibration, high reliability, and long life. A helium CLHP has been tested extensively in a thermal vacuum chamber using a cryocooler as the heat sink to characterize its transient and steady performance and to verify its ability to cool large areas or components in the 3 degrees Kelvin temperature range. The helium CLHP thermal performance test included cool-down from the ambient temperature, startup, capillary limit, heat removal capability, rapid power changes, and long duration steady state operation. The helium CLHP demonstrated robust operation under steady state and transient conditions. The loop could be cooled from the ambient temperature to subcritical temperatures very effectively, and could start successfully by simply applying power to both the capillary pump and the evaporator plate without pre-conditioning. It could adapt to a rapid heat load change and quickly reach a new steady state. Heat removal between 10 megawatts and 140 megawatts was demonstrated, yielding a power turn down ratio of 14. When the CLHP capillary limit was exceeded, the loop could resume its normal function by reducing the power to the capillary pump. Steady state operations up to 17 hours at several heat loads were demonstrated. The ability of the helium CLHP to cool large areas was therefore successfully verified.

Thermal Control Systems↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

NASA's Development of Advanced Space Suits for Lunar Exploration

Significant work has been completed recently at NASA’s Johnson Space Center in the Space Suit and Crew Survival Systems Branch to design and mature an advanced exploration EVA (Extra-Vehicular Activity) architecture. This effort culminated in the xEMU (eXploration Extra-vehicular Mobility Unit) space suit, which was completed in 2022 and tested extensively through 2023, including human performance, cycle life performance and thermal vacuum testing. An overview of the xEMU design and test campaign is provided, as well as its value as the government reference design supporting the transition to EVA commercial services for the Artemis program. Lastly, a development roadmap is discussed which outlines NASA’s identified strategy to enable the next generation of exploration EVA hardware for sustaining-class Lunar and Mars missions.

Shane M McFarland↗

NASA NTRS2004

Tensile Creep Fracture of Polycrystalline Near-Stoichiometric NiAl

Tensile creep fracture behavior of polycrystalline near-stoichiometric NiAl has been studied between 700 and 1200 K under initial applied stresses varying between 10 and 200 MPa. The stress exponent for fracture varied between 5.0 and 10.7 while the activation energy for fracture was 250 +/- 22 kJ/mol. The fracture life was inversely proportional to the secondary creep rate in accordance with the Monkman-Grant relation although there was extensive scatter in the data. This observation suggests that the fracture life for near-stoichiometric NiAl was influenced by creep under these stress and temperature conditions. Several different fracture morphologies were observed. Transgranular ductile cleavage fracture occurs at 700 K and at the higher stresses at 800 K. The fracture mode transitions to transgranular creep fracture at 900 and 1000 K and at lower stresses at 800 K, while plastic rupture and grain boundary cavitation occur at 1100 and 1200 K. An experimental fracture mechanism map is constructed for near-stoichiometric NiAl.

Raj, Sai V.↗

NASA NTRS1997

Dissecting global diversity patterns: examples from the Ordovician Radiation

Although the history of life has been characterized by intermittent episodes of radiation that can be recognized in global compilations of biodiversity, it does not necessarily follow that these episodes are caused by processes that occurred uniformly around the world. Major diversity increases could be generated by the cumulative effects of different mechanisms operating simultaneously at several geographic or environmental scales. The purpose of this review is to describe ongoing research on the manifestations, at several scales, of the Ordovician Radiation, which was among the most extensive intervals of diversification in the history of life. Through much of the period, diversity was concentrated most heavily near regions of active mountain building and volcanism; differences in diversity patterns from continent to continent, and among regions within continents, reflect this overprint. While this suggests a linkage of the Radiation and tectonic activity, this is by no means the only mediating agent. Outcrop-based research in North America has demonstrated that tectonic activity was detrimental to some biotic elements, in contrast to its effects on other organisms. Moreover, in the Great Basin of North America where the local stratigraphic record is of particularly high quality, biotic transitions characteristic of the period occurred far more rapidly than observed in global compilations of diversity, suggesting that the global rate of transition may represent the aggregate sum of transitions that occurred abruptly, but at different times, around the world. Finally, it has been demonstrated that, in concert with an increase in average age, the environmental and geographic ranges of Ordovician genera both increased significantly through the period, indicating a role for intrinsic factors in producing Ordovician biotic patterns.

Non-NASA Center↗

NASA NTRS2010

Potentially Habitable Ancient Environments in Gusev Crater, Mars

Habitable environments must sustain liquid water at least intermittently and also provide both chemical building blocks and useful sources of energy for life. Observations by Spirit rover indicate that conditions have probably been too dry to sustain life, at least since the emplacement of the extensive basalts that underlie the plains around the Columbia Memorial Station landing site. Local evidence of relatively minor aqueous alteration [1] probably occurred under conditions where the activity of water was too low to sustain biological processes as we know them. In contrast, multiple bedrock units in West Spur and Husband Hill in the Columbia Hills have been extensively altered. Patterns of elemental abundances are consistent with aqueous processes involving migrating fluids [2]. Fe in several of these units has been extensively oxidized [3]. Conceivably any microbiota present during the aqueous alteration of these rocks might have obtained energy from Fe oxidation. Spirit discovered olivine-rich ultramafic rocks during her descent from Husband Hill southward into Inner Basin. Alteration of similar ultramafic rocks on Earth can yield H2 that can provide both energy and reducing power for microorganisms. Spirit's discovery of deposits rich in ferric sulfate is consistent with the aqueous dissolution and/or alteration of olivine under acidic conditions [2] such as those associated with hydrothermal activity. The oxidation of iron and sulfur that can accompany such activity can be an energy source for life. Hydrothermal systems on Earth that sustain either acidic [4] or neutral to alkaline fluids [5] have been shown to provide this energy. Collectively the observations by Spirit rover are consistent with the possibility that habitable environments existed in Gusev crater at least intermittently in the distant geologic past.

Fe oxidation↗

NASA NTRS2006

Potential Lifestyles in Ancient Environments of Gusev Crater, Mars

Habitable environments must sustain liquid water at least intermittently and also provide both chemical building blocks and useful sources of energy for life. Observations by Spirit rover indicate that conditions have probably been too dry to sustain life, at least since the emplacement of the extensive basalts that underlie the plains around the Columbia Memorial Station landing site. Local evidence of relatively minor aqueous alteration probably occurred under conditions where the activity of water was too low to sustain biological processes as we know them. In contrast, multiple bedrock units in West Spur and Husband Hill in the Columbia Wills have been extensively altered, probably by aqueous processes. The Fe in several of these units has been extensively oxidized, indicating that, in principle, any microbiota present during the aqueous alteration of these rocks could have obtained energy from Fe oxidation. Spirit discovered oliving-rich ultramafic rocks during her descent from Husband Hill southward into Inner Basin. Alteration of similar ultramafic rocks on Earth can yield H2 that can provide both energy and reducing power for microorganisms. Spirit s discovery of "salty" soil horizons rich in Fe and/or Mg is consistent with the aqueous dissolution and/or alteration of olivine. Such processes can oxidize Fe and also yield H2 under appropriate conditions. Very high S concentrations in these salty deposits indicate that soluble salts were mobilized by water and/or that S oxidation, a potential energy source for life, occurred. The Athena team has not yet established whether these salt components were deposited as large beds in ancient water bodies or, for example, were concentrated by more recent groundwater activity. Collectively these observations are consistent with the possibility that habitable environments existed at least intermittently in the distant geologic past.

DesMarais, David J.↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Micrometeoroid and Orbital Debris (MMOD) Testing, Ballistic Limit Definition and Risk Assessment of the Exploration Extravehicular Mobility Unit (xEMU)

A well-known hazard associated with exposure to the space environment is the risk of failure due to an impact from a micrometeoroid and orbital debris (MMOD) particle. As NASA prepares to return astronauts to the moon with the Artemis program, the next generation of spacesuit is in development to support future extravehicular activities (EVAs.) An MMOD impact to the spacesuit is of great concern as a large leak could prevent an astronaut from safely reaching an airlock in time resulting in a loss of life. The exploration extravehicular mobility unit (xEMU) must meet MMOD requirements for multiple environments including those in low earth orbit (LEO) as well as the meteoroid and secondary lunar regolith ejecta environments found on the lunar surface. The subject of this paper is an internal xEMU configuration design developed by NASA Johnson Space Center (JSC) personnel. The xEMU shares similarities with the legacy Extravehicular Mobility Unit (EMU) spacesuit that is currently used for ISS EVAs, however differences in the layup (e.g., materials, thicknesses, and layers) of the fabric environmental protection garment (EPG), portable life support system (xPLSS) and helmet required an extensive test program to determine ballistic performance. Over 100 hypervelocity impact (HVI) tests were performed by the NASA/JSC HVIT and White Sands Test Facility (WSTF) teams on the xEMU EPG, xPLSS and helmet to generate ballistic limit equations (BLEs) for MMOD impacts. Additionally, over 50 low speed tests (< 1km/s) were performed by the NASA/JSC HVIT and Southwest Research Institute (SwRI) teams on the xEMU EPG, xPLSS and helmet to generate BLEs for lunar ejecta impacts. Post testing, ballistic limit equations (BLEs) used to define the performance of the various regions on the xEMU spacesuit were developed from a generic set of BLEs. The HVI and low speed testing was performed to establish a physical basis for the equations with the coefficients and exponents of the generic BLEs adjusted to fit the test data. The xEMU BLEs were added to the NASA/JSC software application used for spacecraft MMOD risk assessments (BUMPER-3). A finite element model (FEM) of the xEMU spacesuit, which defines the size and shape of the spacesuit as well as the locations of the various shielding configurations, was created based on a solid model provided by the xEMU program office. Using the FEM file and added xEMU BLEs, BUMPER-3 assessments of the xEMU spacesuit for probability of no penetration (PNP) were performed. For the LEO assessment of a typical ISS EVA, the orbital debris and meteoroids environments were defined using the latest engineering models, ORDEM 3.2 and MEM-3 respectively. The lunar surface assessment again used the MEM-3 engineering model to define the meteoroid environment along with the current released lunar surface ejecta model, NASA SP-8013 (developed during the Apollo Program). The Space Team in the Natural Environments Branch at Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) will soon release the new Lunar Meteoroid Ejecta Engineering Model (LMEEM), at which time the xEMU lunar surface EVA will be reassessed. Assessment of the MMOD risk for an 8-hour, 2-person EVA in both LEO and on the lunar surface showed that the xEMU spacesuit meets the program technical requirement of 1 in 2500 failure odds. Similar to the legacy EMU spacesuit, the majority of the MMOD risk (96% of the LEO EVA risk and 99% of the lunar surface EVA risk) is concentrated in regions of xEMU that are comprised primarily of softgoods (arms, legs, and gloves) rather than the hardgoods (xPLSS, hard upper torso and helmet).

Micrometeoroid↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Micrometeoroid and Orbital Debris (MMOD) Testing, Ballistic Limit Equation Definition and Risk Assessment of the Exploration Extravehicular Mobility Unit (xEMU)

A well-known hazard associated with exposure to the space environment is the risk of failure due to an impact from a micrometeoroid and orbital debris (MMOD) particle. As NASA prepares to return astronauts to the moon with the Artemis program, the next generation of spacesuit is in development to support future extravehicular activities (EVAs.) An MMOD impact to the spacesuit is of great concern as a large leak could prevent an astronaut from safely reaching an airlock in time resulting in a loss of life. The exploration extravehicular mobility unit (xEMU) must meet MMOD requirements for multiple environments including those in low earth orbit (LEO) as well as the meteoroid and secondary lunar regolith ejecta environments found on the lunar surface. The subject of this paper is an internal xEMU configuration design developed by NASA Johnson Space Center (JSC) personnel. This paper will expand on the hypervelocity impact (HVI) testing and ballistic limit equation (BLE) definition work that was partially presented at the 2nd International Orbital De-bris (IOC-II) Conference held in Sugar Land, TX in December 2023. The xEMU shares similarities with the legacy Extravehicular Mobility Unit (EMU) spacesuit that is currently used for ISS EVAs, however differences in the layup (e.g., materials, thicknesses, and layers) of the fabric environmental protection garment (EPG), portable life support system (xPLSS) and helmet required an extensive test program to determine ballistic performance. Over 100 hypervelocity impact (HVI) tests were performed by the NASA/JSC HVIT and White Sands Test Facility (WSTF) teams on the xEMU EPG, xPLSS and helmet to generate ballistic limit equations (BLEs) for MMOD impacts. Additionally, over 50 low speed tests (< 1km/s) were performed by the NASA/JSC HVIT and Southwest Research Institute (SwRI) teams on the xEMU EPG, xPLSS and helmet to generate BLEs for lunar ejecta impacts. Post testing, ballistic limit equations used to define the performance of the various regions on the xEMU spacesuit were developed from a generic set of BLEs. The HVI and low speed testing was performed to establish a physical basis for the equations with the co-efficients and exponents of the generic BLEs adjusted to fit the test data. The xEMU BLEs were added to the NASA/JSC software application used for space-craft MMOD risk assessments (BUMPER-3). A finite element model (FEM) of the xEMU spacesuit, which defines the size and shape of the spacesuit as well as the locations of the various shielding configurations, was created based on a solid model provided by the xEMU program office. Using the FEM file and added xEMU BLEs, BUMPER-3 assessments of the xEMU spacesuit for probability of no penetration (PNP) were performed. For the LEO assessment of a typical ISS EVA, the orbital debris and meteoroids environments were defined using the latest engineering models, ORDEM 3.2 and MEM-3 respectively. The lunar sur-face assessment again used the MEM-3 engineering model to define the meteoroid environ-ment along with the current released lunar surface ejecta model, NASA SP-8013 (developed during the Apollo Program). The Space Team in the Natural Environments Branch at Mar-shall Space Flight Center (MSFC) will soon release the new Lunar Meteoroid Ejecta Engineering Model (LMEEM), at which time the xEMU lunar surface EVA will be reassessed. Assessment of the MMOD risk for an 8-hour, 2-person EVA in both LEO and on the lunar surface showed that the xEMU spacesuit meets the program technical requirement of 1 in 2500 failure odds. Similar to the legacy EMU spacesuit, the majority of the MMOD risk (96% of the LEO EVA risk and 99% of the lunar surface EVA risk) is concentrated in regions of xEMU that are comprised primarily of softgoods (arms, legs, and gloves) rather than the hardgoods (xPLSS, hard upper torso and helmet).

Micrometeoroid↗

NASA NTRS1973

The Apollo spacecraft: A chronology. Volume 2: 8 November 1962 - 30 September 1964

A chronology of the Apollo spacecraft development and production program is presented. The subjects discussed are: (1) defining contractural relations, (2) developing hardware distinctions, and (3) developing software ground rules. Illustrations, drawings, and photographs are used extensively to supplement the technical writing. Descriptions of life support systems, communication equipment, propulsion systems, control devices, and spacecraft components are provided.

Morse, M. L.↗

NASA NTRS1974

Platelet injectors for Space Shuttle orbit maneuvering engine

The Space Shuttle Orbit Maneuvering Subsystem Rocket Engine employs a platelet element injector concept. This injector has demonstrated 316-sec vacuum specific impulse performance under simulated altitude conditions when tested with a milled slot/electroformed nickel close-out regenerative chamber and a full 71 area ratio nozzle. To date, over 300 altitude engine tests and 300 stability bomb tests have demonstrated stable, erosion free operation with this concept to test durations of 150 seconds. The injector and chamber also meet the reusable requirements of the shuttle with a cycle life capability in excess of 1000 cycles. An extensive altitude restart program has also demonstrated OMS-engine operation over large variations in the burn and coast times with helium saturated propellants.

Kahl, R. C.↗

NASA NTRS1980

Properties of African squall lines inferred from time-lapse satellite imagery

Analysis of 48 h of time-lapse satellite imagery of a family of squall lines in Africa links the phenomena with a characteristic cloud cluster and with a wind field perturbation which is enhanced in passing through an African easterly wave trough. A thin 'arc line' of low-level developing cumulus, a salient feature of the squall lines on the imagery, is shown to occur at the front boundary of the mesoscale/convective scale subsidence. Analysis of the wind field indicates that a squall line is associated with a vorticity center in the mid-level easterly flow which accompanies the mesoscale subsidence which, in turn, contributes to further forced ascent of subcloud air along the front of the squall line into convective towers which merge into an extensive anvil. The squall lines evolved through a life cycle of 6 to 12 h while the larger cloud cluster and wind perturbation lasted over 48 h. The magnitude of the vertical mass exchange suggests that squall-line families contribute significantly to the tropical energy balance.

Fortune, M.↗

NASA NTRS1999

A Decade of Life Sciences Experiment Unique Equipment Development for Spacelab and Space Station, 1990-1999

Ames Research Center's Life Sciences Division has developed and flown an extensive array of spaceflight experiment unique equipment (EUE) during the last decade of the twentieth century. Over this ten year span, the EUE developed at ARC supported a vital gravitational biology flight research program executed on several different platforms, including the Space Shuttle, Spacelab, and Space Station Mir. This paper highlights some of the key EUE elements developed at ARC and flown during the period 1990-1999. Resulting lessons learned will be presented that can be applied to the development of similar equipment for the International Space Station.

Savage, Paul D.↗

NASA NTRS1997

Comparative diversification dynamics among palaeocontinents during the Ordovician Radiation

The Ordovician Radiation was among the most extensive intervals of diversification in the history of life. However, a delineation of the proximal cause(s) of the Radiation remains elusive. Any such determination should involve an analysis of geographic overprints on diversification: did the Radiation occur randomly around the world or, alternatively, was it focused in particular geographic or depositional regimes? Here, I present a comparative evaluation of Ordovician diversification among several palaeocontinents to determine whether biotas associated with certain palaeocontinents exhibited different diversification patterns than others; in part, this involves a numerical "correction" to raw diversity trajectories. Clear disparities among palaeocontinents are indicated by the data, which appear to reflect differences in the extent of siliciclastic input partly in association with tectonic activity. Further testing will be required to fully substantiate the implication that siliciclastic influx was a predominant factor in the Ordovician Radiation, affecting a variety of higher taxa among all three Phanerozoic evolutionary faunas.

Non-NASA Center↗

NASA NTRS1992

Spacecraft Cooler Characterization

To meet an important need within the space community for a reliable and accurate database of cryocooler performance, the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), under SDIO/Air Force Sponsorship, is conducting an extensive space cryocooler characterization program involving long-life cryocoolers submitted by world-wide manufacturers.

cryocoolers↗

NASA NTRS2018

Citizen Science as a Tool for Scientific Research and Societal Benefit at NASA

NASA's strategic goals include advancing knowledge and opportunity in space and improving life on Earth. We support these goals through extensive programs in space and Earth science research accomplished via space-based missions and research funding. NASA's "system" is configured to conduct science using (1) in-house personnel and (2) grants, contracts, and agreements with external entities (academia, industry, international space agencies.

earth scienc↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Enabling Space Biology Knowledge Discovery Through Biospecimen Sharing: The NASA Biological Institutional Scientific Collection and Space Microbial Culture Collection

NASA and international partners have conducted experiments in space to understand the biological impacts and address hazards to health. The resulting basic and applied science is imperative to enabling humanity to venture back to the Moon and then to Mars and beyond. Sending organisms into space is a costly endeavor. All biospecimens not required by spaceflight-relevant Principal Investigators are harvested, preserved, and archived in the NASA Biological Institutional Scientific Collection (NBISC) to maximize the scientific return. The NASA Biological and Physical Sciences (BPS) Division ‘Open Science’ endeavor includes NASA Genelab, the Space Biology Program’s Biospecimen Sharing Program, Physical Sciences Informatics, the Ames Life Sciences Data Archive, and NBISC to integrate extensive data and biospecimen resources from spaceflight and/or ground-based analog experiments. NBISC biospecimens are collected and preserved according to well-established standard operating procedures to maintain scientific quality and are available on-request by the international scientific community. NBISC currently stores over 32,000 biospecimens from Shuttle, International Space Station, and ground-based space analog investigations. Tissue sharing has resulted in at least 33 publications since 2011 and 48 requests since 2016. Many requests for NBISC biospecimen come from first-time investigators who subsequently submit grants as the port-of-entry into the field of space biology. Some NBISC biospecimens have been awarded to NASA Genelab, who then generate various ‘Open Science’ -omics data sets on their platform for bioinformatics. Other NBISC biospecimen awards have led to multiple studies such as fecal microbiome analysis, DNA damage analysis using single-cell DNA sequencing, enzymatic-pathway identification involved in spaceflight muscle atrophy, and characterization of ocular morphological changes. Of note, NBISC has expanded to include a new Space Microbial Culture Collection (SMCC) for the collection, identification, documentation, long-term preservation, and distribution of space-related microbial isolates.

biospecimens↗

NASA NTRS2021

Architectural Modeling and Analysis for Safety Engineering

Model-based development tools are increasingly being used for system-level development of safety-critical systems. Architectural and behavioral models provide important information that can be leveraged to improve the system safety analysis process. Model-based design artifacts produced in early stage development activities can be used to perform system safety analysis, reducing costs and providing accurate results throughout the system life-cycle. In this report we describe an extension to the Architecture Analysis and Design Language (AADL) that supports modeling of system behavior under failure conditions. This Safety Annex enables the independent modeling of component failures and allows safety engineers to weave various types of fault behavior into the nominal system model. The accompanying tool support uses model checking to propagate errors from their source to their effect on safety properties without the need to add separate propagation specifications. The tool also captures all minimal set of fault combinations that can cause violation of the safety properties, that can be compared to qualitative and quantitative objectives as part of the safety assessment process. We describe the Safety Annex, illustrate its use with a representative example, and discuss and demonstrate the tool support enabling an analyst to investigate the system behavior under failure conditions.

FTA↗

NASA NTRS2024

Future of the Search for Life: Workshop Report

The 2-week, virtual Future of the Search for Life science and engineering workshop brought together more than 100 scientists, engineers, and technologists in March and April 2022 to provide their expert opinion on the interconnections between life-detection science and technology. Participants identified the advances in measurement and sampling technologies they believed to be necessary to perform in situ searches for life elsewhere in our Solar System, 20 years or more in the future. Among suggested measurements for these searches, those pertaining to three potential indicators of life termed “dynamic disequilibrium,” “catalysis,” and “informational polymers” were identified as particularly promising avenues for further exploration. For these three indicators, small breakout groups of participants identified measurement needs and knowledge gaps, along with corresponding constraints on sample handling (acquisition and processing) approaches for a variety of environments on Enceladus, Europa, Mars, and Titan. Despite the diversity of these environments, sample processing approaches all tend to be more complex than those that have been implemented on missions or envisioned for mission concepts to date. The approaches considered by workshop breakout groups progress from nondestructive to destructive measurement techniques, and most involve the need for fluid (especially liquid) sample processing. Sample processing needs were identified as technology gaps. These gaps include technology and associated sampling strategies that allow the preservation of the thermal, mechanical, and chemical integrity of the samples upon acquisition; and to optimize the sample information obtained by operating suites of instruments on common samples. Crucially, the interplay between science-driven life-detection strategies and their technological implementation highlights the need for an unprecedented level of payload integration and extensive collaboration between scientists and engineers, starting from concept formulation through mission deployment of life-detection instruments and sample processing systems.

Marc Neveu↗