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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 199 records · Page 11
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2022

Valuing Resilience for Microgrids: Challenges, Innovative Approaches, and State Needs

The United States depends on the delivery of reliable, affordable, clean, and safe electricity. Electric utilities invest billions of dollars each year in generation, transmission, and distribution assets to meet this need. However, experiences with recent natural disasters of increasing frequency and duration demonstrate the shortcomings of this approach in the face of modern threats. Further, as customers rely on electricity for a broader range of important needs, such as transportation, as well as critical life-saving services and mission critical facilities such as water treatment, medical care, shelters, telecommunications, and more, the need to minimize the likelihood and impacts of outages grows. Against this backdrop, resilience has emerged as a key consideration to guide electricity spending, whether from utilities, customers, or taxpayers. Although reliability has been defined and measured for decades with broadly accepted metrics that measure how many customers lose power and at what frequency and duration, resilience considers the electricity system’s response to a disruption and its subsequent impacts on customers. Developing tools and methods to accurately assess the costs and benefits of resilience investments is a critical step toward the goal of mitigating the impacts of outages on customers and society. Today, electric system resilience is largely treated as an externality due to challenges estimating the costs of long-duration outages, impacts of outages on society, and increasing reliance on electricity for a growing set of interdependent services. These interdependencies include the water, wastewater, telecommunications, natural gas, and health sectors. Without knowing how much a given resilience investment will benefit customers or society more broadly, investors, policymakers, and regulators are less likely to make or approve such investments, and less able to prioritize those investments. State Energy Offices and public utility commissions (PUCs) lead the development of state-level energy policy and utility regulation, respectively, and each has interests in encouraging appropriate public and private investments in resilience. To this end, the National Association of State Energy Officials (NASEO) and National Association of Regulatory Utility Commissioners (NARUC), with the support of the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Office of Electricity (OE), formed a joint Microgrids State Working Group to explore the costs and benefits of microgrids, barriers to broader deployment of microgrids to meet resilience and other objectives, and policy and regulatory strategies to optimize investments in resilience, including but not limited to microgrids. Although no universally accepted valuation tool for resilience exists, National Laboratories, utilities, researchers, and state and federal agencies have collaborated to develop, apply, and improve a number of approaches to quantify resilience, several of which are still in progress at the time this report is published. This report seeks to share these important advances by discussing current definitions of resilience (Section 1), how microgrids are defined and used to meet resilience objectives (Section 2), new approaches to valuing resilience (Section 3), steps State Energy Offices and PUCs have taken to further resilience valuation efforts (Section 4), and finally, considerations and suggested next steps for State Energy Offices and PUCs (Section 5). Relevant examples of specific microgrid projects and resilience valuation efforts are included throughout the report. While this report is written specifically for NASEO and NARUC members, it may be useful for utilities, local governments, and individual customers interested in improving the way public and private dollars are spent to achieve resilience outcomes.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗
NASA NTRS1999

Gulf of Mexico Helicopter Offshore System Technologies Recommended Development Path

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Advanced Air Transportation Technologies (AATT) project in cooperation with the Department of Transportation (DOT) Volpe National Transportation Systems Center (VNTSC) contracted with the System Resources Corporation (SRC) for the evaluation of the existing environment and the identification of user and service provider needs in the Gulf of Mexico low-altitude Offshore Sector. The results of this contractor activity are reported in the Gulf of Mexico Helicopter Offshore System Technologies Engineering Needs Assessment. A recommended system design and transition strategy was then developed to satisfy the identified needs within the constraints of the environment. This work, also performed under contract to NASA, is the subject of this report.

Koenke, Edmund J.↗
NASA NTRS2017

NewSpace: The Emerging Commercial Space Industry

We are at a turning point in the history of space exploration and development, where new industries are being born to use space in non-traditional ways. Established state-run industrial space sector is no longer the only game in town; commercial space is becoming competitive. Many new entrepreneurial companies, such as SpaceX, Deep Space Industries, etc. are developing new markets, such as Orbital, Suborbital, and Deep Space. Together, government and private industry can facilitate the birth of this new industry. The U.S. national policy on commercial space is to develop a robust and competitive U.S. commercial space sector and to energize competitive domestic industries to participate in global markets. NASA can do this by purchasing and using commercial space capabilities and services; exploring the use of nontraditional arrangements for acquiring space capabilities and services; refraining from activities that preclude, discourage, or compete with commercial space activities; and pursuing opportunities to transfer some functions to the commercial space sector, where beneficial. Commercial space must be competitive, while the government has other priorities such as safety, jobs, etc.

emerging industry↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

The Space Superhighway: Space Infrastructure for the 21st Century

This paper introduces a concept for space infrastructure developed with input from multiple U.S. government agencies called the Space Superhighway, which could support civil, commercial, and national security space activities. The Space Superhighway is a commercial-first space infrastructure that contains three primary components: regional hubs, a sustainable transportation network, and Earth-to-orbit logistics. Civil, commercial, and national security space sectors could use this common infrastructure to support missions such as satellite servicing, Earth science, and space domain awareness, among others. It utilizes a commercial-first, “infrastructure-as-a-service” approach which contains industry-owned and operated assets with government anchor tenants for commercial services, enabling extended mission lifetime, on-orbit repair, maneuver without regret, and debris mitigation and removal. The Space Superhighway is the space infrastructure needed for the 21st century.

space superhighway↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

The Space Superhighway: Space Infrastructure for the 21st Century

This poster introduces a concept for space infrastructure developed with input from multiple U.S. government agencies called the Space Superhighway, which could support civil, commercial, and national security space activities. The Space Superhighway is a commercial-first space infrastructure that contains three primary components: regional hubs, a sustainable transportation network, and Earth-to-orbit logistics. Civil, commercial, and national security space sectors could use this common infrastructure to support missions such as satellite servicing, Earth science, and space domain awareness, among others. It utilizes a commercial-first, “infrastructure-as-a-service” approach which contains industry-owned and operated assets with government anchor tenants for commercial services, enabling extended mission lifetime, on-orbit repair, maneuver without regret, and debris mitigation and removal. The Space Superhighway is the space infrastructure needed for the 21st century.

space infrastructure↗
DOE OSTI2018

Economics of Indoor Air Quality

Buildings represent a major end use of energy throughout the world and are typically the dominant sector for electricity. The use of that energy is to provide buildings services, the most important of which is Indoor Environmental Quality (IEQ). Heating and air conditioning systems typically handle the thermal comfort aspects of IEQ; the energy impacts and economics of such systems is well studied. The most important remaining aspect of IEQ is Indoor Air Quality (IAQ). IAQ combines health aspects odour and moisture but is typically not represented by a health-based performance metric. As a result, ventilation rates are used as a surrogate for IAQ. Recent research has developed “Smart Ventilation” technologies that economically optimize ventilation by considering utility rate structures, exposure to outdoor contaminants, as well as peak loads and total energy demand. Enabling this optimization of Smart Ventilation requires IAQ performance metrics that can be monetized. Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory and others have used Disability Adjusted Life Years (DALYs) to quantify health impacts of contaminant exposure, which shows IAQ may be a critical economic driver. This paper reviews these general concepts and presents some of the most recent work we have done on both Smart Ventilation and economic metrics for IAQ.

Walker, Iain↗
DOE OSTI2016

Choosing Your Nuclear Fuel Cycle: A Life Cycle Assessment Perspective - 16425

Nuclear waste management has always been a much debated topic and a key driver for decisions within the nuclear industry. A standardised global approach has not yet been developed and at present many countries are re-considering their position. In the UK the reprocessing of Spent Nuclear Fuel is projected to stop, but no clear indication about the future approach has been given. This contribution sets out the early stages of an approach to compare the possible alternatives based on Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), which is widely used in other sectors to assess the overall environmental burdens of a product or a service across the whole life cycle - i.e. from cradle to grave. The LCA may serve to support decision-making processes within the nuclear industry and, provided that it is used in an open and transparent way, to improve public attitudes towards nuclear energy. To date few LCA studies within the nuclear industry have been carried out, the main issue being the lack of a standardised methodology to evaluate the impacts of radionuclides. The present study proposes a new framework for this purpose, and demonstrates its application in an LCA study of the current UK approach to the management of spent nuclear fuel based on specific data from plants at Sellafield. The final results of the study will show the overall environmental footprint of the reprocessing of spent nuclear fuel, in terms of both radiological and non-radiological impacts. A 'hot spot' analysis will also be performed to highlight the critical processing steps. (authors)

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗
NASA NTRS2011

A Human-in-the-Loop Evaluation of Multi-Sector Planning in Mixed Equipage Airspace (MSP III)

A human-in-the-loop (HITL) simulation was conducted in May 2010 to determine the feasibility and value 01 conducting multi-sector planning (MSP) operations in a mixed equipage environment. Aircraft were categorized as equipped or unequipped based on the presence or absence of an air-ground data communications (Data Comm) capability for receiving auto-loadable clearances and transfer of communication messages from the air navigation service provider (ANSP). The purpose of the study was to determine the feasibility and possible benefits of introducing multi-sector planning in a mixed equipage context, or whether Data Comm equipage was required for MSP operations. Each test scenario presented one of three different equipage levels to the controllers (10%, 50% or 90% equipped aircraft), so that the operational impact of different equipage levels could be observed. Operational feasibility assessment addressed two related questions: (1) are MSP operations feasible for unequipped aircraft, and (2) are they feasible in a mixed equipage context. Similarly, two categories of potential benefits were explored: (1) system performance improvements (e.g., throughput, workload) associated with MSP at different equipage levels, and (2) the possibility of providing differential service for equipage through MSP operations. Tool requirements (for both planning and controller stations), as well as planning and coordination procedures - within facility (traffic management unit/operational area) and within sector (R-Side/D-Side) - were two other topics addressed in the study. Overall, results suggested that MSP operations were feasible in a mixed equipage environment and that the tools were effective with both equipped and unequipped aircraft. Using the MSP tools, traffic management coordinators were able to manage controller task load, effectively balancing throughput with complexity and controller task load at each of the three equipage levels tested.

Smith, Nancy↗
NASA NTRS2012

Bringing Together Users and Developers of Forest Biomass Maps

Forests store carbon and thus represent important sinks for atmospheric carbon dioxide. Reducing uncertainty in current estimates of the amount of carbon in standing forests will improve precision of estimates of anthropogenic contributions to carbon dioxide in the atmosphere due to deforestation. Although satellite remote sensing has long been an important tool for mapping land cover, until recently aboveground forest biomass estimates have relied mostly on systematic ground sampling of forests. In alignment with fiscal year 2010 congressional direction, NASA has initiated work toward a carbon monitoring system (CMS) that includes both maps of forest biomass and total carbon flux estimates. A goal of the project is to ensure that the products are useful to a wide community of scientists, managers, and policy makers, as well as to carbon cycle scientists. Understanding the needs and requirements of these data users is helpful not just to the NASA CMS program but also to the entire community working on carbon-related activities. To that end, this meeting brought together a small group of natural resource managers and policy makers who use information on forests in their work with NASA scientists who are working to create aboveground forest biomass maps. These maps, derived from combining remote sensing and ground plots, aim to be more accurate than current inventory approaches when applied at local and regional scales. Meeting participants agreed that users of biomass information will look to the CMS effort not only to provide basic data for carbon or biomass measurements but also to provide data to help serve a broad range of goals, such as forest watershed management for water quality, habitat management for biodiversity and ecosystem services, and potential use for developing payments for ecosystem service projects. Participants also reminded the CMS group that potential users include not only public sector agencies and nongovernmental organizations but also the private sector because much forest acreage in the United States is privately held and needs data for forest management. Additional key outcomes identified by meeting participants include the following: (1) Priority should be given to building into the biomass product ease of use and low costs (including costs of hardware, software, and analysis requirements), (2) CMS products should also be relevant to other biomass measures for forest watershed management, habitat protection for biodiversity, and assessment of markets for ecosystem services, (3) CMS leadership should engage with the Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change as they establish measuring, reporting, and verification standards, and (4) CMS leadership should continue to keep sister agencies and other organizations informed as CMS develops, particularly via the agencies active in the U.S. Global Change Research Program Carbon Cycle Interagency Working Group (U.S. Geological Survey, U.S. Department of Agriculture, and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration) and nongovernmental organizations.

Forest↗
DOE OSTI2017

Pittsburgh 2013 Energy Baseline: Consumption, Trends & Opportunities

This study examines energy consumption patterns within the Pittsburgh metropolitan area to establish a baseline for energy consumption and associated air emissions. Monthly electricity and natural gas consumption for the residential, commercial, and industrial sectors is reported at the zip code-level, utilizing 2013 utility data (the last complete year available). Electricity load profiles for the Duquesne Light service territory are also reported, examining hourly, daily, and monthly load trends. These data were then utilized to identify trends in consumption, emissions associated with different sectors and fuel types, and potential opportunities for improvement.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗
DOE OSTI2016

Scaling up the energy service company business: market status and company feedback in the Russian Federation

Many energy efficiency professionals have proposed using Energy Performance Contracts (EPCs) as a mechanism to improve public sector energy efficiency in countries with restrictive government budgets. However, in practice, most middle-income countries have used this mechanism only in a limited way. Russia offers an interesting case study because of its huge energy savings opportunities, increasing energy prices, robust political backing for public sector energy efficiency, and evolving legislation that supports EPCs. In 2009, the Russian Federation launched a program to reduce the energy intensity of the country’s large public sector, which accounts for 9 percent of Russia’s total energy consumption. To achieve energy efficiency goals, Russia experimented with its public procurement rules, adjusting them to encourage EPCs. We conducted structured interviews with Energy Service Companies (ESCOs) in Russia and supplemented them with online research. Our review shows that, to date, nearly 50 ESCOs signed about 150 contracts in public facilities. Most ESCO contracts in Russia are for 5 years, and they generally are small (under $100,000). ESCOs in Russia face a challenging environment, which leads to smaller projects. ESCOs also are concerned about costly and risky tender procedures, uncertainty regarding repayment from public facilities, the inability to expand projects, and financing. We discuss these challenges and propose potential solutions at policy and company levels. The ESCOs feedback regarding Russia’s experimental model can inform the country’s program for public sector energy efficiency and offer lessons for other countries attempting to develop the EPC mechanism.

29 ENERGY PLANNING, POLICY, AND ECONOMY↗
DOE OSTI2022

Secure mmWave Spectrum Sharing with Autonomous Beam Scheduling for 5G and Beyond

Spectrum Sharing (SS) has seen a renewed set of initiatives in 5G with the availability of shared and unlicensed spectrum bands that can be used by multiple cellular service providers and private cellular networks. Beam based transmission, instead of the traditional sector based transmission in conjunction with the spectrum agility of the 5G New Radio (NR) has brought new opportunities to optimized sharing of spectrum. Currently in the U.S., a centralized Spectrum Access Server (SAS) is used to co-ordinate spectrum sharing among networks sharing the same spectrum band. However, SAS becomes a focal point for security attacks and a performance bottleneck. In addition, SAS relies on an Environmental Sensor Network (ESN), separate from the 5G network. Without trusted spectral occupancy information, false reporting of spectrum sensing data can create sub-optimal and unfair spectrum usage. This paper summarizes our recent research findings in using a decentralized scheme for multiple networks to securely share spectrum with autonomous beam scheduling : 1) A new stochastic network framework based on Lyapunov Optimization approach is developed to optimize scheduling at the base stations; 2) Game theoretic (GT) approach is used to formulate the distributed scheduler; 3) Another distributed scheduler with Q-learning is presented that utilizes the Reinforcement Learning (RL) approach; 4) The performance and convergence rate of these distributed solutions to use shared and unlicensed spectrum are compared with existing solutions. Conditions under which the performance of these schedulers approach the theoretical upper bound, which is the performance possible with no interference among the operators sharing the spectrum, are presented; 5) The ability of a base station to use its own user equipment as sensors, for optimal spectrum sharing with base stations in other operator networks, is demonstrated to be an effective approach.

5G↗
DOE OSTI2016

International Energy Outlook 2016 With Projections to 2040

The International Energy Outlook 2016 (IEO2016) presents an assessment by the U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) of the outlook for international energy markets through 2040. U.S. projections appearing in IEO2016 are consistent with those published in EIA’s Annual Energy Outlook 2015 (AEO2015). IEO2016 is provided as a service to energy managers and analysts, both in government and in the private sector. The projections are used by international agencies, federal and state governments, trade associations, and other planners and decisionmakers. They are published pursuant to the Department of Energy Organization Act of 1977 (Public Law 95-91), Section 205(c). The IEO2016 energy consumption projections are divided according to Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development members (OECD) and nonmembers (non-OECD). OECD members are divided into three basic country groupings: OECD Americas (United States, Canada, and Mexico/Chile), OECD Europe, and OECD Asia (Japan, South Korea, and Australia/New Zealand). Non-OECD countries are divided into five separate regional subgroups: non-OECD Europe and Eurasia (which includes Russia); non-OECD Asia (which includes China and India); Middle East; Africa; and non-OECD Americas (which includes Brazil). In some instances, the IEO2016 energy production models have different regional aggregations to reflect important production sources (for example, Middle East OPEC is a key region in the projections for liquids production). Complete regional definitions are listed in Appendix M. IEO2016 focuses exclusively on marketed energy. Nonmarketed energy sources, which continue to play an important role in some developing countries, are not included in the estimates. The IEO2016 projections are based on existing U.S. and foreign government laws and regulations. In general, IEO2016 reflects the effects of current policies—often stated through regulations—within the projections. EIA analysts attempt to interpret the likely effects of announced country targets when the implementation of those targets will require new policies that have not been formulated or announced.

29 ENERGY PLANNING, POLICY, AND ECONOMY↗
DOE OSTI2021

Topological Machine Learning Methods for Power System Responses to Contingencies: Preprint

While deep learning tools, coupled with the emerging machinery of topological data analysis, are proven to deliver various performance gains in a broad range of applications, from image classification to biosurveillance to blockchain fraud detection, their utility in areas of high societal importance such as power system modeling and, particularly, resilience quantification in the energy sector yet remain untapped. To provide fast acting synthetic regulation and contingency reserve services to the grid while having minimal disruptions on customer quality of service, we propose a new topologybased system that depends on neural network architecture for impact metrics classification and prediction in power systems. This novel topology-based system allows one to evaluate the impact of three power system contingency types, namely, in conjunction with transmission lines, transformers, and transmission lines combined with transformers. We show that the proposed new neural network architecture equipped with local topological measures facilitates both more accurate classification of unserved load as well as the amount of unserved load. In addition, we are able to learn complex relationships between electrical properties and local topological measurements on the simulated response to contingencies for NREL-SIIP power system.

graph theory↗
DOE OSTI2021

Topological Machine Learning Methods for Power System Responses to Contingencies

While deep learning tools, coupled with the emerging machinery of topological data analysis, are proven to deliver various performance gains in a broad range of applications, from image classification to biosurveillance to blockchain fraud detection, their utility in areas of high societal importance such as power system modeling and, particularly, resilience quantification in the energy sector yet remains untapped. To provide fast acting synthetic regulation and contingency reserve services to the grid while having minimal disruptions on customer quality of service, we propose a new topology-based system that depends on a neural network architecture for impact metric classification and prediction in power systems. This novel topology-based system allows one to evaluate the impact of three power system contingency types, in conjunction with transmission lines, transformers, and transmission lines combined with transformers. We show that the proposed new neural network architecture equipped with local topological measures facilitates more accurate classification of unserved load as well as the amount of unserved load. In addition, we are able to learn more about the complex relationships between electrical properties and local topological measurements on their simulated response to contingencies for the NREL-SIIP power system.

contingency analysis↗
DOE OSTI2023

National Solar Jobs Accelerator (Final Technical Report (FTR))

The aptitudes and experiences gained through military service—such as dynamic leadership, teamwork and critical thinking skills, technical specialization, and a mission-completion work ethic—make veterans exceptional candidates for a wide range of solar energy careers. The solar industry offers a highly collaborative and purpose-driven work environment that resonates with service members and veterans looking to rise to their next challenge, and solar employers are eager to tap into this valuable talent pool. From October 2019 - February 2023, The National Solar Jobs Accelerator (publicly the Solar Ready Vets Network TM (SRV Network; SRVN)) enhanced and streamlined options for military service members and veterans to pursue solar training, certification, and employment, while advancing solar employers’ efforts and capacity to invest in military talent as part of a long-term workforce development strategy. The SRVN was led by the Interstate Renewable Energy Council (IREC) in partnership with the Solar Energy Industries Association (SEIA), the US Chamber of Commerce Foundation’s Hiring Our Heroes program (HOH) and the North American Board of Certified Energy Practitioners (NABCEP). Through several direct-impact and indirect, high-impact capacity building initiatives aligned with six key objectives, the SRV Network strengthened solar career pathways, and promoted increased representation of military talent across all levels and sectors of the solar workforce. A work-based learning Corporate Fellowship model connected transitioning service members with on-the-job experience in leadership roles with solar employers nationwide. The project advanced broader veteran recruitment and talent development by expanding GI Bill eligibility and streamlining veterans’ pathways for solar training and credentialing, supported direct connections to jobs with top solar employers, and led coordination among key education and industry partners to advance registered apprenticeships aligned with solar career pathways. To ensure that the project best served the needs of all stakeholders, an Advisory Committee of military-connected solar professionals, solar employers, and training providers met biannually to guide project activities and sustainability plans. The project team engaged the broader “SRV Network” (comprised of over 2,000 veterans, employers and training organizations) through regular newsletters and targeted outreach to share resources, hiring fairs, webinars, and other opportunities for engagement. The work done under this award builds on the previous iterations of the Department of Energy’s Solar Ready Vets ® program. As the solar industry continues to grow rapidly over the next decade, the military community will continue to be a highly valuable source of talent. The relationships established and work accomplished through this project will have an enduring positive impact well beyond the funding period.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2015

Is bigger better? An empirical analysis of waste management in New South Wales

Highlights: • We search for the most efficient cost structure for NSW household waste services. • We found that larger services are no longer efficient. • We found an optimal size for the range 12,000–20,000 inhabitants. • We found significant economies of output density for household waste collection. • We found economies of scope in joint provision of unsorted and recycling services. - Abstract: Across the world, rising demand for municipal solid waste services has seen an ongoing increase in the costs of providing these services. Moreover, municipal waste services have typically been provided through natural or legal monopolies, where few incentives exist to reduce costs. It is thus vital to examine empirically the cost structure of these services in order to develop effective public policies which can make these services more cost efficient. Accordingly, this paper considers economies of size and economies of output density in the municipal waste collection sector in the New South Wales (NSW) local government system in an effort to identify the optimal size of utilities from the perspective of cost efficiency. Our results show that – as presently constituted – NSW municipal waste services are not efficient in terms of costs, thereby demonstrating that ‘bigger is not better.’ The optimal size of waste utilities is estimated to fall in the range 12,000–20,000 inhabitants. However, significant economies of output density for unsorted (residual) municipal waste collection and recycling waste collection were found, which means it is advantageous to increase the amount of waste collected, but maintaining constant the number of customers and the intervention area.

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗
DOE OSTI2013

Energy use and CO2 emissions of China’s industrial sector from a global perspective

The industrial sector has accounted for more than 50% of China’s final energy consumption in the past 30 years. Understanding the future emissions and emissions mitigation opportunities depends on proper characterization of the present-day industrial energy use, as well as industrial demand drivers and technological opportunities in the future. Traditionally, however, integrated assessment research has handled the industrial sector of China in a highly aggregate form. In this study, we develop a technologically detailed, service-oriented representation of 11 industrial subsectors in China, and analyze a suite of scenarios of future industrial demand growth. We find that, due to anticipated saturation of China’s per-capita demands of basic industrial goods, industrial energy demand and CO2 emissions approach a plateau between 2030 and 2040, then decrease gradually. Still, without emissions mitigation policies, the industrial sector remains heavily reliant on coal, and therefore emissions-intensive. With carbon prices, we observe some degree of industrial sector electrification, deployment of CCS at large industrial point sources of CO2 emissions at low carbon prices, an increase in the share of CHP systems at industrial facilities. These technological responses amount to reductions of industrial emissions (including indirect emission from electricity) are of 24% in 2050 and 66% in 2095.

China↗