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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 199 records · Page 11
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2026

Effect of Oil Viscosity and Impact of Ionic Liquid Additive on Electrically Induced Pitting in Rolling Contact

Electrically induced bearing damage (EIBD) is a growing concern in electric drivetrains, where electrical discharge currents generate localized pitting that accelerates wear and premature failure. While ionic liquids (ILs) have shown promise as lubricant additives due to their natural physical adsorption, strong capabilities of tribofilm formation, and high molecular tunability, their role in mitigating EIBD is little known. This gap is especially evident because lubricant viscosity and film thickness affect discharge behavior, and additive performance in these regimes has not been well explored. In this study, tribological tests were performed using a ball-on-disk pure rolling-contact system under an applied voltage on polyalphaolefin oils of three viscosities (4, 10, and 150 cSt measured at 100 °C), with and without the addition of a phosphonium-phosphate IL. Surface damage was analyzed using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and stylus profilometry. Damage quantification was based on pit morphology analysis of SEM images. The results provide new insights into how oil viscosity governs the discharge behavior and how an IL additive could influence the pit formation. While viscosity seems to play a significant role, an IL additive shows potential to reduce EIBD and deserves further study.

electrically induced bearing damage (EIBD)↗
DOE OSTI2024

Laser-Induced Plasmas of Plutonium Dioxide in a Double-Walled Cell

Plutonium research has been stifled by the significant number of administrative controls and safety procedures, space and instrumentation limitations in radiological gloveboxes, and the potential for personnel and equipment contamination. To address the limited number of spectroscopic studies in Pu-bearing compounds in the current scientific literature, this work presents the use of double-walled cells (DWCs) in “clean” buildings/laboratories as an alternative to research in radiological gloveboxes. This study reports the first laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) experiments of a PuO 2 pellet contained within a DWC, where the formation of elemental (atomic and ionic) species as well as the evolution from elemental to molecular products (Pu x O y ) was measured. Raman spectroscopy was also used to characterize the surface of the ablated pellet and the particulates deposited on the window of the inner cell. The full width half-maximum of the T 2g band enabled us to obtain an estimate of the temperature at the pellet surface after the ablation pulse and the particulates based on the crystal lattice disorder. Particulates deposited on the window of the DWC during laser ablation were characterized using scanning electron microscopy, where molten irregular particulates and spheroids were observed. This exciting research conducted in a DWC describes our initial attempts to incorporate LIBS in the arsenal of spectroscopic tools for nuclear forensics applications.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
DOE OSTI2021

Characterizing mechanical and microstructural properties of novel montmorillonite-rich polyethylene composites

Montmorillonite (MMT) clays are important industrial materials used as catalysts, chemical sorbents and fillers in polymer–clay nanocomposites. The layered structure of these clays has motivated research into further applications of these low-cost materials, including use as ion exchange media and solid-state ionic conductors. In these applications, the mechanical properties of MMT are key when considering long-term, reliable performance. Previous studies have focused on the mechanical properties of nanocomposites with MMT as the minority component or pure MMT thin films. In this work, the microstructure and mechanical properties of pure MMT and majority MMT/polyethylene composites pressed into dense pellets are examined. Characterization methods such as X-ray diffraction, atomic force microscopy and scanning electron microscopy together with nanoindentation reveal important structure–property relationships in the clay-based materials. Here, utilizing these techniques, we have discovered that MMT processing impacts the layered microstructure, chemical stability and, critically, the elastic modulus and hardness of bulk MMT samples. Particularly, the density of the pellets and the ordering of the clay platelets within them strongly influence the elastic modulus and hardness of the pellets. By increasing pressing force or by incorporating secondary components, the density, and therefore mechanical properties, can be increased. If the layered structure of the clay is destroyed by exfoliation, the mechanical properties will be compromised. Understanding these relationships will help guide new studies to engineer mechanically stable MMT-based materials for industrial applications.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2025

Synthetic Accessibility and Sodium Ion Conductivity of the Na8–x A x P2O9 (NAP) High-Temperature Sodium Superionic Conductor Framework

Advancement of solid-state electrolytes (SSEs) for all solid-state batteries typically focuses on modification of a known structural framework to improve conductivity, e.g., cation substitution for an immobile ion or varying the concentration of the mobile ions. Novel frameworks can be disruptive by enabling fast ion conduction aided by different structure and diffusion mechanisms, thereby unlocking optimal conductors with different properties. Herein, we perform a high-throughput survey of a structural framework for sodium ion conduction, Na8–x A x P2O9 (NAP), to understand the family’s thermodynamic stability, synthesizability, and ionic conduction. We show that the parent phase Na4TiP2O9 (NTP) undergoes a structural distortion (with accompanying conductivity transition) due to unstable phonons arising from pseudo-Jahn–Teller mode in the 1D titanium chains. Screening compounds in which Ti is substituted by other metals computationally reveal a number of candidates that are predicted to be low in formation energy and have high predicted ionic conductivities. High-throughput experimental and subsequent methodology optimization trials deliver one new compound, Na4SnP2O9 (NSP). X-ray diffraction (XRD), microscopy, and spectroscopy characterization indicate that the room-temperature structure of NSP is similar to the high-temperature, orthorhombic NTP phase but with some small unresolved structural differences. These uncharacterized structural details are speculated to limit the ion conductivity. Temperature-dependent XRD and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy indicate multiple coupled conductivity–structure transitions at a high temperature. We demonstrate the challenges with synthesis development and a priori identification of promising SSE phases as a major bottleneck in new (energy) materials development.

Chemical reactions↗
DOE OSTI2025

Curvature Memory in Electrically Stimulated Lipid Membranes

Here, we demonstrate, using non-equilibrium molecular dynamics simulations, that lipid membrane capacitance varies with surface charge accumulation linked to membrane shape and curvature changes. Specifically, we show that lipid membranes exhibit a hysteretic response when exposed to oscillatory electric fields. The electromechanical coupling in these membranes leads to hysteretic buckling, in which the membrane can spontaneously buckle in one of two distinct directions along the electric field, even for the same ionic charge accumulation at the water–membrane interface. In this regard, these binary buckled membrane states suggest potential applications in neuromorphic computing. Their bistable nature, characterized by two distinct and stable configurations, could serve as a foundation for implementing memory storage systems and logic operations. Furthermore, we introduce a circuit model that captures these dynamic effects, offering insights into emergent memory effects in electrically stimulated lipid membranes. Finally, this work presents lipid bilayers as dynamic, adaptable elements and suggests a new platform for exploring energy storage, information processing, and memory encoding at the lipid membrane level.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2021

Substrate Partitioning into Protein Macromolecular Frameworks for Enhanced Catalytic Turnover

Spatial partitioning of chemical processes is an important attribute of many biological systems, the effect of which is reflected in the high efficiency of enzymes found within otherwise chaotic cellular environments. Barriers, often provided through the formation of compartments or phase segregation, gate the access of macromolecules and small molecules within the cell and provide an added level of metabolic control. Taking inspiration from nature, we have designed virus-like particles (VLPs) as nanoreactor compartments that sequester enzyme catalysts and have used these as building blocks to construct 3D protein macromolecular framework (PMF) materials, which are structurally characterized using small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS). Additionally, the highly charged PMFs form a separate phase in suspension, and by tuning the ionic strength, we show positively charged molecules preferentially partition into the PMF, while negatively charged molecules are excluded. This molecular partitioning was exploited to tune the catalytic activity of enzymes enclosed within the individual particles in the PMF, the results of which showed that positively charged substrates had turnover rates that were 8500× faster than their negatively charged counterparts. Moreover, the catalytic PMF led to cooperative behavior resulting in charge dependent trends opposite to those observed with individual P22 nanoreactor particles.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2024

Small‐Molecule Mixed Ionic‐Electronic Conductors for Efficient N‐Type Electrochemical Transistors: Structure‐Function Correlations

Abstract The fundamental challenge in electron‐transporting organic mixed ionic‐electronic conductors (OMIECs) is simultaneous optimization of electron and ion transport. Beginning from Y6‐type/U‐shaped non‐fullerene solar cell acceptors, we systematically synthesize and characterize molecular structures that address the aforementioned challenge, progressively introducing increasing numbers of oligoethyleneglycol (OEG; g) sidechains from 1 g to 3 g, affording OMIECs 1gY, 2gY, and 3gY, respectively. The crystal structure of 1gY preserves key structural features of the Y n series: a U‐shaped/planar core, close π–π molecular stacking, and interlocked acceptor groups. Versus inactive Y6 and Y11, all of the new glycolated compounds exhibit mixed ion‐electron transport in both conventional organic electrochemical transistor (cOECT) and vertical OECT (vOECT) architectures. Notably, 3gY with the highest OEG density achieves a high transconductance of 16.5 mS, an on/off current ratio of ~10 6 , and a turn‐on/off response time of 94.7/5.7 ms in vOECTs. Systematic optoelectronic, electrochemical, architectural, and crystallographic analysis explains the superior 3gY‐based OECT performance in terms of denser n gY OEG content, increased crystallite dimensions with decreased long‐range crystalline order, and enhanced film hydrophilicity which facilitates ion transport and efficient redox processes. Finally, we demonstrate an efficient small‐molecule‐based complementary inverter using 3gY vOECTs, showcasing the bioelectronic applicability of these new small‐molecule OMIECs.

Cho, Yongjoon↗
DOE OSTI2024

Small‐Molecule Mixed Ionic‐Electronic Conductors for Efficient N‐Type Electrochemical Transistors: Structure‐Function Correlations

Abstract The fundamental challenge in electron‐transporting organic mixed ionic‐electronic conductors (OMIECs) is simultaneous optimization of electron and ion transport. Beginning from Y6‐type/U‐shaped non‐fullerene solar cell acceptors, we systematically synthesize and characterize molecular structures that address the aforementioned challenge, progressively introducing increasing numbers of oligoethyleneglycol (OEG; g) sidechains from 1 g to 3 g, affording OMIECs 1gY, 2gY, and 3gY, respectively. The crystal structure of 1gY preserves key structural features of the Y n series: a U‐shaped/planar core, close π–π molecular stacking, and interlocked acceptor groups. Versus inactive Y6 and Y11, all of the new glycolated compounds exhibit mixed ion‐electron transport in both conventional organic electrochemical transistor (cOECT) and vertical OECT (vOECT) architectures. Notably, 3gY with the highest OEG density achieves a high transconductance of 16.5 mS, an on/off current ratio of ~10 6 , and a turn‐on/off response time of 94.7/5.7 ms in vOECTs. Systematic optoelectronic, electrochemical, architectural, and crystallographic analysis explains the superior 3gY‐based OECT performance in terms of denser n gY OEG content, increased crystallite dimensions with decreased long‐range crystalline order, and enhanced film hydrophilicity which facilitates ion transport and efficient redox processes. Finally, we demonstrate an efficient small‐molecule‐based complementary inverter using 3gY vOECTs, showcasing the bioelectronic applicability of these new small‐molecule OMIECs.

Cho, Yongjoon↗
DOE OSTI2020

Spectroscopic evidence for intact carbonic acid stabilized by halide anions in the gas phase

Here we show elusive carbonic acid being effectively stabilized in the gas phase by interacting with halide anions X – (X = F, Cl, Br, and I). The formed H 2 CO 3 ·X – complexes, characterized by negative ion photoelectron spectroscopy and ab initio calculations, all contain intact trans – trans carbonic acid binding onto the respective halide via two identical strong ionic O–H...X – hydrogen bonds. For X = Cl, Br, and I, the complex spectra exhibit the corresponding X – signature by simply shifting to the higher binding energy side, while an extremely 2 eV wide broader band is observed for X = F. This spectroscopic evidence indicates that an excess electron is removed from each halide in the former case, while a proton is transferred from carbonic acid to fluoride upon electron detachment for the latter. The above H 2 CO 3 ·X – structures as well as those of the previously studied H 2 SO 4 ·X – along the homologous halogen series cannot be explained using the proton affinity (PA) argument. Instead, a qualitative correlation is found between these structural motifs and the constituent acid p K a values, strongly suggesting that p K a is a more suitable factor to predict correct acid–base chemistry between these diprotic oxyacids and halides.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2025

Dicopper( i ) complexes of a binucleating, dianionic, naphthyridine bis(amide) ligand

The dinucleating ligand, 1,8-naphthyridine-2,7-bis(2,6-diisopropylphenyl)carboxamide (NBDA), was synthesized by palladium-catalyzed aminocarbonylation. This ligand was treated with two equivalents of mesitylcopper(I) in the presence of [nBu4N]X (X = Cl, N3) to give the anionic complexes [nBu4N][Cu2(NBDA)(μ-Cl)] and [nBu4N][Cu2(NBDA)(μ-N3)]. Treatment of H2NBDA with mesitylcopper(I) and two equivalents of xylyl isocyanide led to the formation of a charge-neutral dicopper(I) complex, [Cu2(NBDA)(CNXyl)2], displaying two isocyanide ligands, each terminally bound to one of the copper atoms. The complexes were characterized by NMR and IR spectroscopy, as well as by single-crystal X-ray diffraction analysis. Electrochemical characterization of the complexes using cyclic voltammetry revealed a reversible ligand-based reduction between -1.65 and -2.0 V vs. Fc/Fc+. DFT calculations suggest a more ionic bonding character and weaker Cu-Cu interactions in the NBDA complexes compared to those with other 1,8-naphthyridine-based ligands. This is congruent with intermetallic separations of over 3 Å induced by relatively strong coordination of the copper atoms to the amide nitrogen donor atoms observed in the solid state molecular structures.

Sévery, Laurent↗
DOE OSTI2022

Dynamic compression of [100] MgF 2 single crystals: Shock-induced polymorphism to highly coordinated structures

AX 2 -type compounds exhibit a rich and complex series of phase transitions under compression. The high-pressure polymorphism of rutile-type AX 2 difluorides can be characterized by a typical sequence from rutile type → Ca Cl 2 type → HP – Pd F 2 type → cotunnite type . Relative to dioxides, the reduced valence and ionic radius of the F – anion in rutile-type MgF 2 (sellaite) results in lowered transition pressures, making it a useful analog for SiO 2 and other dioxides. In this work, MgF 2 single crystals were shock-compressed along the [100] direction to 24 to 120 GPa using plate impact techniques, and wave profiles were measured using laser interferometry. At low stresses (24 to 44 GPa), we observe features consistent with an elastic–inelastic response, followed by a phase transformation. Peak stress-density states in this stress range are consistent with those expected for the modified fluorite-type (HP- PdF 2 ) phase or a related structure. At higher stresses (69 to 91 GPa), we observe a two-wave structure with peak stress-density states consistent with transformation to a denser and likely more highly coordinated phase such as the cotunnite-type structure. Furthermore, at 120 GPa, only a single wave structure is observed, indicating that the wave profile features observed at lower stresses are overdriven.

75 CONDENSED MATTER PHYSICS, SUPERCONDUCTIVITY AND↗
DOE OSTI2023

Salt Transport in Crosslinked Hydrogel Membranes Containing Zwitterionic Sulfobetaine Methacrylate and Hydrophobic Phenyl Acrylate

Produced water is a by-product of industrial operations, such as hydraulic fracturing for increased oil recovery, that causes environmental issues since it includes different metal ions (e.g., Li+, K+, Ni2+, Mg2+, etc.) that need to be extracted or collected before disposal. To remove these substances using either selective transport behavior or absorption-swing processes employing membrane-bound ligands, membrane separation procedures are promising unit operations. This study investigates the transport of a series of salts in crosslinked polymer membranes synthesized using a hydrophobic monomer (phenyl acrylate, PA), a zwitterionic hydrophilic monomer (sulfobetaine methacrylate, SBMA), and a crosslinker (methylenebisacrylamide, MBAA). Membranes are characterized according to their thermomechanical properties, where an increased SBMA content leads to decreased water uptake due to structural differences within the films and to more ionic interactions between the ammonium and sulfonate moieties, resulting in a decreased water volume fraction, and Young’s modulus increases with increasing MBAA or PA content. Permeabilities, solubilities, and diffusivities of membranes to LiCl, NaCl, KCl, CaCl2, MgCl2, and NiCl2 are determined by diffusion cell experiments, sorption-desorption experiments, and the solution-diffusion relationship, respectively. Permeability to these metal ions generally decreases with an increasing SBMA content or MBAA content due to the corresponding decreasing water volume fraction, and the permeabilities are in the order of K+ > Na+ > Li+ > Ni2+ > Ca2+ > Mg2+ presumably due to the differences in the hydration diameter.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2021

Status and prospect of in situ and operando characterization of solid-state batteries

Electrification of the transportation sector relies on radical re-imagining of energy storage technologies to provide affordable, high energy density, durable and safe systems. Next generation energy storage systems will need to leverage high energy density anodes and high voltage cathodes to achieve the required performance metrics (longer vehicle range, long life, production costs, safety). Solid-state batteries (SSBs) are promising materials technology for achieving these metrics by enabling these electrode systems due to the underlying material properties of the solid electrolyte (viz. mechanical strength, electrochemical stability, ionic conductivity). Electro-chemo-mechanical degradation in SSBs detrimentally impact the Coulombic efficiencies, capacity retention, durability and safety in SSBs restricting their practical implementation. Solid|solid interfaces in SSBs are hot-spots of dynamics that contribute to the degradation of SSBs. Characterizing and understanding the processes at the solid|solid interfaces in SSBs is crucial towards designing of resilient, durable, high energy density SSBs. This work provides a comprehensive and critical summary of the SSB characterization with a focus on in situ and operando studies. Additionally, perspectives on experimental design, emerging characterization techniques and data analysis methods are provided. Furthermore, this work provides a thorough analysis of current status of SSB characterization as well as highlights important avenues for future work.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2020

Utilizing ink composition to tune bulk-electrode gas transport, performance, and operational robustness for a Fe-N-C catalyst in polymer electrolyte fuel cell

With lower site density and turnover frequency, platinum group metal (PGM)-free catalysts based electrodes are often greater than 50 mu m thick in order to increase performance across the fuel cell operating range. Consequently, PGM-free electrodes have an additional bulk electrode transport resistance beyond the local or aggregate level transport in thin platinum-based electrodes. In parallel to the development of more active and durable PGM-free catalysts, advancements in understanding the interplay between PGM-free electrode fabrication, bulk-electrode transport, proton conductivity and performance are needed. Here, the relationship between ionic and gas phase transport through the electrode thickness is modified by adjusting electrocatalyst and ionomer flocculation/interaction at the ink level. The influence of the ink composition (water/n-propanol content) is examined via various in-situ electrochemical and ex-situ characterization techniques and the resulting electrode structure/performance relationship contrasted with electrode performance robustness across a range of relative humidity (RH). For the electrocatalyst examined here, a water-rich (82 wt% H2O) ink formulation was favorable for operation at high RH due to improved molecular diffusion through larger electrode pores. In contrast, the improved interactions between ionomer and electrocatalyst enabled a more robust electrode and higher performance during low RH operation for the 50 wt% H2O content ink.

08 HYDROGEN↗
DOE OSTI2025

Influence of counterion substitution on the properties of imidazolium-based ionic liquid clusters

Due to their unique physiochemical properties that may be tailored for specific purposes, ionic liquids (ILs) have been investigated for various applications, including chemical separations, catalysis, energy storage, and space propulsion. The different cations and anions comprising ILs may be selected to optimize a range of desired properties, such as thermal stability, ionic conductivity, and volatility, leading to the designation of certain ILs as designer “green” solvents. The effect of counterions on the properties of ILs is of both fundamental scientific interest and technological importance. Herein, we report a systematic experimental and theoretical investigation of the size, charge, stability toward dissociation, and geometric/electronic structure of 1-ethyl-3-methyl imidazolium (EMIM)-based IL clusters containing two different atomic counterions (i.e., bromide [Br − ] and iodide [I − ]). This work extends our studies of EMIM + cations with atomic chloride (Cl − ) and molecular tetrafluoroborate (BF 4 − ) anions reported previously by Baxter et al. [Chem. Mater. 34, 2612 (2022)] and Zhang et al . [J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 11, 6844 (2020)], respectively. Distributions of anionic IL clusters were generated in the gas phase using electrospray ionization and characterized by high mass resolution mass spectrometry, energy-resolved collision-induced dissociation, and negative ion photoelectron spectroscopy experiments. The experimental results reveal anion-dependent trends in the size distribution, relative abundance, ionic charge state, stability toward dissociation, and electron binding energies of the IL clusters. Complementary global optimization theory provides molecular-level insights into the bonding and electronic structure of a selected subset of clusters, including their low energy structures and electrostatic potential maps, and how these fundamental characteristics are influenced by anion substitution. Collectively, our findings demonstrate how the fundamental properties of ILs, which determine their suitability for many applications, may be tuned by substituting counterions. These observations are critical in the sub-nanometer cluster size regime where phenomena do not scale predictably to the bulk phase, and each atom counts toward determining behavior.

cluster↗
DOE OSTI2025

Utilization of the LS-APGD microplasma/orbitrap-FTMS booster system for detection and isotopic analysis of neodymium nanoparticles

Detection and isotopic analysis of particle populations has seen rapid growth across several application areas, including environmental analysis, nuclear forensics, and food safety. The ability to characterize the particles' unique elemental and isotopic fingerprints could provide information related to formation, processing history, and transport. Regarding nuclear forensics, isotopic analysis of particles derived from diverse materials is often used as a tool to trace the origin and processing history. Mass spectrometric-based techniques currently used for particle population analysis often suffer from limited mass resolution, particularly when dealing with real-world samples that are affected by isobaric and polyatomic interferences from the matrix. To address these analytical challenges, we propose a novel method utilizing the liquid sampling-atmospheric pressure glow discharge (LS-APGD) microplasma ionization source coupled to an ultrahigh resolution Orbitrap mass spectrometer, further enhanced with the FTMS X2T Booster data acquisition and processing unit. The FTMS Booster enables acquisition of extended transient times of up to 3 s, significantly improving mass resolution, thereby reducing or even eliminating the need for prior separation of isobaric or polyatomic interferences. Additionally, the detection of low-abundance isotopes was improved by increasing the signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio. As proof of concept, this study demonstrates the feasibility of the LS-APGD/Orbitrap-FTMS X2T Booster platform for direct analysis using a suspension of well-characterized ∼120 nm neodymium particles. The quality of the isotope ratios values obtained from a few hundred particles were in good agreement with those obtained from homogeneous ionic solutions. These results highlight the potential of the LS-APGD/Orbitrap platform for rapid, accurate, and interference-resilient isotope ratio analysis of particle populations without the need for dissolution and subsequent chemical separations, offering significant advantages for nuclear forensics, safeguards, and environmental applications. The effort here also points to further paths forward, hopefully towards single particle (SP) analysis using microplasma ionization and the ultrahigh resolving power of the Orbitrap mass analyzer.

FTMS X2T booster↗
DOE OSTI2025

Investigating the effect of heterogeneities across the electrode|multiphase polymer electrolyte interfaces in high-potential lithium batteries

Polymer electrolytes hold great promise for safe and high-energy batteries comprising solid or semi-solid electrolytes. Multiphase polymer electrolytes, consisting of mobile and rigid phases, exhibit fast ion conduction and desired mechanical properties. However, fundamental challenges exist in understanding and regulating interactions at the electrode|electrolyte interface, especially when using high-potential layered oxide active materials at the positive electrode. Here we demonstrate that depletion of the mobile conductive phase at the interface contributes to battery performance degradation. Molecular ionic composite electrolytes, composed of a rigid-rod ionic polymer with nanometric mobile cations and anions, serve as a multiphase platform to investigate the evolution of ion conductive domains at the interface. Chemical and structural characterizations enable the visualization of concentration heterogeneity and spatially resolve the interfacial chemical states over a statistically significant field of view for buried interfaces. We report that concentration and chemical heterogeneities prevail at electrode|electrolyte interfaces, leading to phase separation in polymer electrolytes. In conclusion, understanding the hidden roles of interfacial chemomechanics in polymer electrolytes enables us to design an interphase tailoring strategy based on electrolyte additives to mitigate the interfacial heterogeneity and improve battery performance.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗