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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 199 records · Page 11
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
NASA NTRS1990

Highball: A high speed, reserved-access, wide area network

A network architecture called Highball and a preliminary design for a prototype, wide-area data network designed to operate at speeds of 1 Gbps and beyond are described. It is intended for applications requiring high speed burst transmissions where some latency between requesting a transmission and granting the request can be anticipated and tolerated. Examples include real-time video and disk-disk transfers, national filestore access, remote sensing, and similar applications. The network nodes include an intelligent crossbar switch, but have no buffering capabilities; thus, data must be queued at the end nodes. There are no restrictions on the network topology, link speeds, or end-end protocols. The end system, nodes, and links can operate at any speed up to the limits imposed by the physical facilities. An overview of an initial design approach is presented and is intended as a benchmark upon which a detailed design can be developed. It describes the network architecture and proposed access protocols, as well as functional descriptions of the hardware and software components that could be used in a prototype implementation. It concludes with a discussion of additional issues to be resolved in continuing stages of this project.

Mills, David L.↗
NASA NTRS2012

Simulation of the Intraseasonal Variability over the Eastern Pacific ITCZ in Climate Models

During boreal summer, convective activity over the eastern Pacific (EPAC) inter-tropical convergence zone (ITCZ) exhibits vigorous intraseasonal variability (ISV). Previous observational studies identified two dominant ISV modes over the EPAC, i.e., a 40-day mode and a quasi-biweekly mode (QBM). The 40-day ISV mode is generally considered a local expression of the Madden-Julian Oscillation. However, in addition to the eastward propagation, northward propagation of the 40-day mode is also evident. The QBM mode bears a smaller spatial scale than the 40-day mode, and is largely characterized by northward propagation. While the ISV over the EPAC exerts significant influences on regional climate/weather systems, investigation of contemporary model capabilities in representing these ISV modes over the EPAC is limited. In this study, the model fidelity in representing these two dominant ISV modes over the EPAC is assessed by analyzing six atmospheric and three coupled general circulation models (GCMs), including one super-parameterized GCM (SPCAM) and one recently developed high-resolution GCM (GFDL HIRAM) with horizontal resolution of about 50 km. While it remains challenging for GCMs to faithfully represent these two ISV modes including their amplitude, evolution patterns, and periodicities, encouraging simulations are also noted. In general, SPCAM and HIRAM exhibit relatively superior skill in representing the two ISV modes over the EPAC. While the advantage of SPCAM is achieved through explicit representation of the cumulus process by the embedded 2-D cloud resolving models, the improved representation in HIRAM could be ascribed to the employment of a strongly entraining plume cumulus scheme, which inhibits the deep convection, and thus effectively enhances the stratiform rainfall. The sensitivity tests based on HIRAM also suggest that fine horizontal resolution could also be conducive to realistically capture the ISV over the EPAC, particularly for the QBM mode. Further analysis illustrates that the observed 40-day ISV mode over the EPAC is closely linked to the eastward propagating ISV signals from the Indian Ocean/Western Pacific, which is in agreement with the general impression that the 40-day ISV mode over the EPAC could be a local expression of the global Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO). In contrast, the convective signals associated with the 40-day mode over the EPAC in most of the GCM simulations tend to originate between 150degE and 150degW, suggesting the 40-day ISV mode over the EPAC might be sustained without the forcing by the eastward propagating MJO. Further investigation is warranted towards improved understanding of the origin of the ISV over the EPAC.

Intraseasonal Variability↗
NASA NTRS2023

Broader Impacts and Outreach Videos on Ocean Physics and Biogeochemistry

This is just a preliminary NF1676 in advance of filming for a project....A convergent team of experts in biology, chemistry, physics, engineering, mathematics, and computational modeling examine how dynamic and coupled phytoplankton-pathogen-particle-predator linkages coalesce to explain the observed high spatial variability in the efficiency of the export of particulate organic carbon (POC) to the deep ocean. They elucidate and quantify the linkages between viruses and ballast minerals to increase understanding of carbon cycling in the oceanic biological carbon pump and the impact of viruses within it. By providing knowledge than can be used to improve the parameterization of carbon export in Earth system models, the project will help reduce uncertainty in regional marine biogeochemical projections, potentially improving marine ecosystem and fisheries management on timescales from seasons to decades. The project includes activities that provide teaching resources and hands-on training to educators within a ‘Tools of Science’ program that provides a simple and succinct way to communicate the process of scientific research to students in a way that is useful to teachers. The project couples laboratory-based experiments on model host-virus-grazer systems with extensive field based observational and manipulative studies on natural populations of diatoms and coccolithophores, the two phytoplankton groups that account for most of the estimated particulate organic matter flux to the deep ocean. Experiments and measurements integrate diagnostic biological and chemical controls on infection and particle coagulation theory with microscale physics and grazing to quantify links to each hypothesized export mechanism under field-relevant turbulent conditions. Cutting-edge engineering and analytical tools are used to diagnose and track infection dynamics while characterizing and quantifying particle aggregation and disaggregation, mineral dissolution, sinking dynamics, grazing rates, and fecal pellet production at unprecedented resolution and under well-defined, microscale physical regimes. Field campaigns elucidate the relative efficiency of hypothesized mechanisms in stimulating POC export in natural blooms, while providing bulk and size-resolved estimates of POC flux.

Daniel B Whitt↗
NASA NTRS1991

Ground Systems Development Environment (GSDE) interface requirements analysis: Operations scenarios

This report is a preliminary assessment of the functional and data interface requirements to the link between the GSDE GS/SPF (Amdahl) and the Space Station Control Center (SSCC) and Space Station Training Facility (SSTF) Integration, Verification, and Test Environments (IVTE's). These interfaces will be involved in ground software development of both the control center and the simulation and training systems. Our understanding of the configuration management (CM) interface and the expected functional characteristics of the Amdahl-IVTE interface is described. A set of assumptions and questions that need to be considered and resolved in order to complete the interface functional and data requirements definitions are presented. A listing of information items defined to describe software configuration items in the GSDE CM system is included. It also includes listings of standard reports of CM information and of CM-related tools in the GSDE.

Church, Victor E.↗
NASA NTRS1999

Interaction of Burning Metal Particles

Physical characteristics of the combustion of metal particle groups have been addressed in this research. The combustion behavior and interaction effects of multiple metal particles has been studied using a microgravity environment, which presents a unique opportunity to create an "aerosol" consisting of relatively large particles, i.e., 50-300 micrometer diameter. Combustion behavior of such an aerosol could be examined using methods adopted from well-developed single particle combustion research. The experiment included fluidizing relatively large (order of 100 micrometer diameter) uniform metal particles under microgravity and igniting such an "aerosol" using a hot wire igniter. The flame propagation and details of individual particle combustion and particle interaction have been studied using a high speed movie and video-imaging with cameras coupled with microscope lenses to resolve individual particles. Interference filters were used to separate characteristic metal and metal oxide radiation bands form the thermal black body radiation. Recorded flame images were digitized and employed to understand the processes occurring in the burning aerosol. The development of individual particle flames, merging or separation, and extinguishing as well as induced particle motion have been analyzed to identify the mechanisms governing these processes. Size distribution, morphology, and elemental compositions of combustion products were characterized and used to link the observed in this project aerosol combustion phenomena with the recently expanded mechanism of single metal particle combustion.

Dreizin, Edward L.↗
DOE OSTI2026

Atomic-Scale Characterization and Electronic Properties of Gold-Capped Niobium Films for Superconducting Qubits

Niobium thin films are central to superconducting qubits, but their complex native oxides contribute significantly to microwave losses. A promising mitigation strategy is to suppress oxide formation using engineered thin-film encapsulation layers. Recent experiments have shown that ∼10 nm metallic overlayers on Nb capacitor films can improve the energy relaxation time T1 of transmon qubits. Here, we present a comparative study of Au-capped Nb films fabricated in situ by molecular beam epitaxy and ex situ by sequential deposition benchmarked against bare Nb films. Using complementary structural, chemical, and spectroscopic techniques, we correlate the interface quality with superconducting electronic properties of the Au surface. Low-temperature scanning tunneling spectroscopy (STS) provides spatially resolved quasiparticle density-of-states maps. While both Au-capped Nb samples exhibit large areas with uniform, fully gapped density of states, clear differences emerge between the two interfaces. Compared to in situ Nb-Au, ex situ Nb-Au exhibits a reduced induced superconducting gap, broadened coherence peak, and localized in-gap states, consistent with a residual NbxOy layer at the interface. Supported by complementary structural and chemical analyses, these findings demonstrate that STS directly links nanoscale superconducting properties to interface preparation, highlighting the importance of controlled in situ encapsulation for minimizing dissipation and improving quantum coherence.

Makita, Junki [MIT; Temple U.] (ORCID:000000026889↗
DOE OSTI2026

Bridge Connectivity Dictates Spin Interactions and Triplet Pair Dynamics in Intramolecular Singlet Fission

Electron spin plays a critical role in determining the structure, dynamics, and reactivities of molecular excited states, including multiexciton processes such as singlet fission. These systems exhibit triplet pair states whose excited state dynamics can be widely tuned through molecular engineering. For example, the electronic coupling between covalently linked chromophores can be readily modulated using chemical bridges to control proximity, quantum interference, or resonance effects. However, less is known about how spin coupling interactions are impacted by chromophore architecture, and how this influences triplet pair recombination dynamics. Here, in this study, we investigate the role of bridge connectivity and chromophore identity in modulating interchromophore exchange and dipolar coupling interactions for a series of pentacene and tetracene dimers bridged by alternant hydrocarbons (phenylene, naphthalene, anthracene). Using both time-resolved electron paramagnetic resonance and transient absorption spectroscopy, we find that the boundedness and recombination pathways of the triplet pair spins are highly sensitive to molecular architecture and chromophore-specific magnetic dipolar interactions. Notably, nominally ferromagnetic and antiferromagnetic eigenstates result in distinct spin state orderings, consistent with predictions from quantum interference-based graphical models. These findings establish new design principles for tuning spin dynamics in iSF materials, with implications for photonic and quantum information applications.

He, Guiying [City Univ. of New York (CUNY), NY (Un↗
NASA NTRS2005

Registration and Marking Requirements for UAS. Unmanned Aircraft System (UAS) Registration

The registration of an aircraft is a prerequisite for issuance of a U.S. certificate of airworthiness by the FAA. The procedures and requirements for aircraft registration, and the subsequent issuance of registration numbers, are contained in FAR Part 47. However, the process/method(s) for applying the requirements of Parts 45 & 47 to Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS) has not been defined. This task resolved the application of 14 CFR Parts 45 and 47 to UAS. Key Findings: UAS are aircraft systems and as such the recommended approach to registration is to follow the same process for registration as manned aircraft. This will require manufacturers to comply with the requirements for 14 CFR 47, Aircraft Registration and 14 CFR 45, Identification and Registration Marking. In addition, only the UA should be identified with the N number registration markings. There should also be a documentation link showing the applicability of the control station and communication link to the UA. The documentation link can be in the form of a Type Certificate Data Sheet (TCDS) entry or a UAS logbook entry. The recommended process for the registration of UAS is similar to the manned aircraft process and is outlined in a 6-step process in the paper.

Source record↗
DOE OSTI2024

Dispersion kinks from electronic correlations in an unconventional iron-based superconductor

The attractive interaction in conventional BCS superconductors is provided by a bosonic mode. However, the pairing glue of most unconventional superconductors is unknown. The effect of electron-boson coupling is therefore extensively studied in these materials. A key signature are dispersion kinks that can be observed in the spectral function as abrupt changes in velocity and lifetime of quasiparticles. Here, we show the existence of two kinks in the unconventional iron-based superconductor RbFe 2 As 2 using angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy (ARPES) and dynami- cal mean field theory (DMFT). In addition, we observe the formation of a Hubbard band multiplet due to the combination of Coulomb interaction and Hund’s rule coupling in this multiorbital systems. We demonstrate that the two dispersion kinks are a consequence of these strong many-body interactions. This interpretation is in line with a growing number of theoretical predictions for kinks in various general models of correlated materials. Our results provide a unifying link between iron-based superconductors and different classes of correlated, unconventional superconductors such as cuprates and heavy-fermion materials.

75 CONDENSED MATTER PHYSICS, SUPERCONDUCTIVITY AND↗
NASA NTRS2012

Highlights of the First 15 Months of Aquarius Salinity Measurements

Aquarius satellite salinity measurements are resolving the major global and regional spatial patterns, and temporal variations, since the start of routine data collection on 25 August 2011. This description includes the principal seasonal variations over the first annual cycle as observed by the mission. In particular, we identify the evolution of low salinity anomalies associated with the Atlantic and Pacific intertropical convergence zones (ITCZ), major river outflows such as the Amazon, a seasonal low salinity anomaly in the Panama bight, and other features. We also explore the links that the salinity variations have with precipitation and surface currents. We then will describe the variations related to the presently evolving 2012 El Nino, now evident, as it progresses through the summer and fall 2012. We conclude with a brief summary of the Aquarius data products and validation

Lagerloef, Gary S. E.↗
NASA NTRS2009

Identifying Galactic Cosmic Ray Origins With Super-TIGER

Super-TIGER (Super Trans-Iron Galactic Element Recorder) is a new long-duration balloon-borne instrument designed to test and clarify an emerging model of cosmic-ray origins and models for atomic processes by which nuclei are selected for acceleration. A sensitive test of the origin of cosmic rays is the measurement of ultra heavy elemental abundances (Z > or equal 30). Super-TIGER is a large-area (5 sq m) instrument designed to measure the elements in the interval 30 < or equal Z < or equal 42 with individual-element resolution and high statistical precision, and make exploratory measurements through Z = 60. It will also measure with high statistical accuracy the energy spectra of the more abundant elements in the interval 14 < or equal Z < or equal 30 at energies 0.8 < or equal E < or equal 10 GeV/nucleon. These spectra will give a sensitive test of the hypothesis that microquasars or other sources could superpose spectral features on the otherwise smooth energy spectra previously measured with less statistical accuracy. Super-TIGER builds on the heritage of the smaller TIGER, which produced the first well-resolved measurements of elemental abundances of the elements Ga-31, Ge-32, and Se-34. We present the Super-TIGER design, schedule, and progress to date, and discuss the relevance of UH measurements to cosmic-ray origins.

deNolfo, Georgia↗
NASA NTRS2014

Global and Time-Resolved Monitoring of Crop Photosynthesis with Chlorophyll Fluorescence

Photosynthesis is the process by which plants harvest sunlight to produce sugars from carbon dioxide and water. It is the primary source of energy for all life on Earth; hence it is important to understand how this process responds to climate change and human impact. However, model-based estimates of gross primary production (GPP, output from photosynthesis) are highly uncertain, in particular over heavily managed agricultural areas. Recent advances in spectroscopy enable the space-based monitoring of sun-induced chlorophyll fluorescence (SIF) from terrestrial plants. Here we demonstrate that spaceborne SIF retrievals provide a direct measure of the GPP of cropland and grassland ecosystems. Such a strong link with crop photosynthesis is not evident for traditional remotely sensed vegetation indices, nor for more complex carbon cycle models. We use SIF observations to provide a global perspective on agricultural productivity. Our SIF-based crop GPP estimates are 50-75% higher than results from state-of-the-art carbon cycle models over, for example, the US Corn Belt and the Indo-Gangetic Plain, implying that current models severely underestimate the role of management. Our results indicate that SIF data can help us improve our global models for more accurate projections of agricultural productivity and climate impact on crop yields. Extension of our approach to other ecosystems, along with increased observational capabilities for SIF in the near future, holds the prospect of reducing uncertainties in the modeling of the current and future carbon cycle.

fluorescence↗
NASA NTRS2024

The Thermal Structure and Composition of Jupiter's Great Red Spot From JWST/MIRI

Jupiter's Great Red Spot (GRS) was mapped by the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST)/Mid-Infrared Instrument (4.9–27.9 μm) in July and August 2022. These observations took place alongside a suite of visual and infrared observations from; Hubble, JWST/NIRCam, Very Large Telescope/VISIR and amateur observers which provided both spatial and temporal context across the jovian disc. The stratospheric temperature structure retrieved using the NEMESIS software revealed a series of hot-spots above the GRS. These could be the consequence of GRS-induced wave activity. In the troposphere, the temperature structure was used to derive the thermal wind structure of the GRS vortex. These winds were only consistent with the independently determined wind field by JWST/NIRCam at 240 mbar if the altitude of the Hubble-derived winds were located around 1,200 mbar, considerably deeper than previously assumed. No enhancement in ammonia was found within the GRS but a link between elevated aerosol and phosphine abundances was observed within this region. North-south asymmetries were observed in the retrieved temperature, ammonia, phosphine and aerosol structure, consistent with the GRS tilting in the north-south direction. Finally, a small storm was captured north-west of the GRS that displayed a considerable excess in retrieved phosphine abundance, suggestive of vigorous convection. Despite this, no ammonia ice was detected in this region. The novelty of JWST required us to develop custom-made software to resolve challenges in calibration of the data. This involved the derivation of the “FLT-5” wavelength calibration solution that has subsequently been integrated into the standard calibration pipeline.

Jake Harkett↗
DOE OSTI2025

Stochastic 3D reconstruction of cracked polycrystalline NMC particles using 2D SEM data

Li-ion battery performance is strongly influenced by the 3D microstructure of its cathode particles. Cracks within these particles develop during calendaring and cycling, reducing connectivity but increasing reactive surface, making their impact on battery performance complex. Understanding these contradictory effects requires a quantitative link between particle morphology and battery performance. However, informative 3D imaging techniques are time-consuming, costly and rarely available, such that analyses often have to rely on 2D image data. This paper presents a novel stereological approach for generating virtual 3D cathode particles exhibiting crack networks that are statistically equivalent to those observed in 2D sections of experimentally measured particles. Consequently, 2D image data suffices for deriving a full 3D characterization of cracked cathodes particles. Such virtually generated 3D particles could serve as geometry input for spatially resolved electro-chemo-mechanical simulations to enhance our understanding of structure-property relationships of cathodes in Li-ion batteries.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
NASA NTRS2000

Multiwaveband Monitoring of the Radio Galaxy 3C 120

This project started new weekly observations of the radio galaxy 3C 120 during Cycle 3 (1998) of the RXTE mission. It is clear that the weekly observations in 1998 did not resolve the variations of the X-ray emission. The most prominent features are three dips in the X-ray flux, separated from each other by about one year. The dips (as well as the the general flux level) is not correlated with the radio emission. However, the times of the dips coincided, within the errors, with the times of zero separation between apparently superluminal features in the radio jets and the cores of the jets. This is potentially a very exciting finding, which would, if confirmed, link the physics of this radio galaxy with that of the binary star system in our Galaxy, 1915+105. The X-ray dip would then be interpreted as the dissociation of the inner accretion disk, with the extra accretion onto the black hole being accompanied by enhanced flow of energy and material down the relativistic jet. This would result in the creation of the observed new superluminal knot.

Marscher, Alan P.↗
DOE OSTI2024

Quantifying Capital Cost Reduction Pathways for Advanced Nuclear Reactors

The framework developed in this study is provided both as an excel sheet (https://inl.gov/content/uploads/2023/11/Nuclear-Reactor-Cost-Reduction-Pathway-Spreadsheet-Tool.xlsx) and a Python (Jupyter) Notebook (link: https://github.com/accert-dev/ACCERT/tree/main/Cost%20Reduction). Capital cost considerations are one of the primary inhibitors to the large-scale deployment of nuclear power plants. While it is widely accepted that first units will likely be expensive and relatively uncompetitive, it is reasonable to expect that subsequent units, built in relative quick succession, will be cheaper as they benefit from the so-called “learning effects”. However, the large degree of uncertainty associated with this parameter renders it challenging for first movers to invest in the first few expensive units. To resolve this impasse, the U.S. Department of Energy’s Advanced Nuclear Liftoff study advocated for the formation of large, committed order books of plants of the same technology to spread the costs across several units and kickstart the nuclear supply chain. The study also advocated best practices for avoiding overruns and keeping reactors on budget. This report builds on these key recommendations by attempting to quantify specific pathways toward cost reduction for nuclear energy. A capital cost estimation framework was built to untangle the effect of learning into a subset of key cost drivers, referred to as “levers”. Collectively, the choice of these levers is intended to reflect the decision-making of high-level stakeholders like plant owners and the government. In addition to the size of the firm orderbook, these levers included (a) cost drivers that are most often attributed to cost overruns such as architect/engineering (A/E) proficiency, construction proficiency, procurement service proficiency, design completion prior to the start of construction, and design maturity, and (b) cost reduction strategies such as modular construction, cross-site standardization, safety classification of the reactor building, and of the balance of plant. Two advanced reactor designs were leveraged as use cases and bottom-up cost estimates made with assumptions consistent with a well-executed first-of-a-kind project (WE-FOAK, i.e., almost no overruns) were used as baselines for the models. Cost correlations were surveyed from the literature to determine the impact of important variables on projected timelines and costs.

22 GENERAL STUDIES OF NUCLEAR REACTORS↗
NASA NTRS2000

Protein Crystals Grow Purer in Space: Physics of Phenomena

This presentation will summarize the quantitative experimental and theoretical results obtained by B.R. Thomas, P.G. Vekilov, D.C. Carter, A.M. Holmes, W.K. Widierow and the Author, the team with expertise in physics, biochemistry, crystallography and engineering. Impurities inhomogeneously trapped by a growing crystal - e.g., producing sectorial structure and/or striations - may induce macroscopic internal stress in it if an impurity molecule has slightly (less than 10%) different shape or volume than the regular one(s) they replace. We tested for the first time plasticity and measured Young modulus E of the triclinic, not cross-linked lysozyme by triple point bending technique. Triclinic lysozyme crystals are purely elastic with E similar or equal to 1/5 (raised dot) 10 (exp 9) partial derivative yn/sq cm. The strength limit, sigma (sub c) similar or equal to 10 (exp -3)E similar or equal to Epsilon (sub c), where sigma (sub c) and epsilon (sub c) are critical stress and strain, respectively. Scaling E and sigma (sub c) with the lattice spacing suggests similar binding stiffness in inorganic and biomolecular crystals. The inhomogeneous internal stress may be resolved in these brittle crystals either by cracking or by creation of misoriented mosaic blocks during, not after growth. If each impurity molecule induces in the lattice elementary strain epsilon (sub 0) similar or equal to 3 (raised dot) 10 (exp -2) (this is maximal elementary strain that can arise at the supersaturation DELTA mu/kT similar or equal to 2 and macroscopic molecular concentration difference between subsequent macrolayers or growth sectors is partial derivativeC similar or equal to 5 (raised dot) 10 (exp -3), the internal strain epsilon similar or equal to epsilon (sub 0) partial derivative C similar or equal to 10 (exp -4). Mosaic misorientation resolving such strain is approximately 30 arcsec. Tenfold increase of impurity concentration may cause cracking. Estimates of stress in an isometric sectorial crystal show that lysozyme crystals can tolerate the stress till the size of 0.5mm. Dissolving mosaic lysozyme crystal shows that the mosaicity, indeed, is absent below that size.

Chernov, Alex A.↗
DOE OSTI2025

Environmental Thermodynamic Effects on Future Changes of Mesoscale Convective Systems and Isolated Deep Convection Over the US: A Case Study

Mesoscale convective systems (MCSs) and isolated deep convection (IDC) significantly influence local weather conditions and the hydrological cycle across the United States. Their future changes under warming is critical to the society. However, the exact impacts of thermodynamic environmental changes on them are difficult to resolve using climate model simulations which integrate both dynamic and thermodynamic factors. This study explores a theoretical modeling approach to isolate environmental thermodynamic effects on their future changes through a case study. For a 50-day period during the 2020 summer, a pair of convection-permitting model simulations indicate contrasting changes in MCSs and IDC between inland and coastal regions under pseudo global warming. Driven by the thermodynamic environments of these simulations, a single-column parcel model indicates a decrease in the frequency of IDC occurrences, along with increases in duration and precipitation amount under warming, attributable to rising most unstable convective available potential energy (MUCAPE), convective inhibition (MUCIN), and precipitable water (PW). A multi-column parcel model reveals contrasting changes in the frequency and mean area of MCSs between inland and coastal regions, underscoring the increase in mean MUCIN over inland regions and increases in mean MUCAPE and PW over coastal regions. The increase in mean MCS area over inland regions is linked to the interplay between accelerated gust fronts and enhanced subsidence strength, which is further traced to the unchanged mean MUCIN but increased mean MUCAPE in large-scale environments. In conclusion, these case study results suggest a major role of thermodynamic environmental changes in controlling characteristics of MCSs and IDC under warming.

Mesoscale convective system↗