Expulsion of storable propellants utilizing a volatile liquid as the pressurizing medium.
Volatile liquid pressurization as expulsion method for storable propellants noting in-flight refueling system design parameters
THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTY↗
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Results for “REFUELING”
Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.
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On-Orbit Measurement of Next Generation Space Solar Cell Technology on the International Space Station
On-orbit measurements of new photovoltaic (PV) technologies for space power are an essential step in the development and qualification of advanced solar cells. NASA Glenn Research Center will fly and measure several solar cells attached to NASA Goddards Robotic Refueling Mission (RRM), expected to be launched in 2014. Industry and government partners have provided advanced PV devices for evaluation of performance and environmental durability. The experiment is completely self-contained, providing its own power and internal data storage. Several new cell technologies including Inverted Metamorphic Multi-junction and four-junction cells will be tested.
robotic refueling mission↗
On-Orbit Measurement of Next Generation Space Solar Cell Technology on the International Space Station
Measurement is essential for the evaluation of new photovoltaic (PV) technology for space solar cells. NASA Glenn Research Center (GRC) is in the process of measuring several solar cells in a supplemental experiment on NASA Goddard Space Flight Center's (GSFC) Robotic Refueling Mission's (RRM) Task Board 4 (TB4). Four industry and government partners have provided advanced PV devices for measurement and orbital environment testing. The experiment will be on-orbit for approximately 18 months. It is completely self-contained and will provide its own power and internal data storage. Several new cell technologies including four- junction (4J) Inverted Metamorphic Multijunction (IMM) cells will be evaluated and the results compared to ground-based measurements.
solar cell↗
Next Generation Hydrogen Station Analysis
This presentation was part of the U.S. Department of Energy Hydrogen Program's Annual Merit Review and Peer Evaluation Meeting, reporting on project TA042, hydrogen refueling station evaluation.
CDP↗
Modeling a Thermal-Spectrum LEU-fueled Molten Salt Reactor Co-fueled with Thorium in SCALE 6.3.1 and Serpent-2
Interest in the development of advanced nuclear fission reactors for commercial electricity production has risen in recent years, with Generation IV reactor designs offering numerous advantages in safety, efficiency, fuel cycle sustainability, and waste management. In particular, thorium-fueled molten salt reactors (MSRs) are considerably promising for enhancing fuel cycle sustainability in their ability to breed fissile 233U fuel from thorium, a presently untapped and widely abundant resource. A novel MSR fuel cycle concept, the ”Sourdough” refueling and waste management strategy, has previously been demonstrated with a traditional uranium-based fuel cycle in a thermal-spectrum MSR operating with low enriched uranium (LEU) fuel with favorable neutronic performance. However, the ability to use this unique fuel cycle approach with thorium-based molten salt fuels has not yet been studied. In this work, the Sourdough fuel cycle was implemented in a small, thermal-spectrum MSR fueled with high assay low enriched uranium (HALEU) and fertile 232Th for breeding 233U fuel. Relevant neutronic data, including fuel and isothermal temperature feedback behavior, was studied using the SCALE 6.3.1 and Serpent-2 code systems, and keff data was measured during simulated depletion at 400 MWth. The Sourdough fuel cycle concept is shown to perform favorably with a thorium-fueled MSR model, thus warranting further study into its use in other MSR designs.
11 - NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗
Designing Electrolytes With Controlled Solvation Structure for Fast‐Charging Lithium‐Ion Batteries
Recharging battery-powered electric vehicles (EVs) in a similar timeframe as those used for refueling gas-powered internal combustion vehicles is highly desirable for rapid penetration of the EV market. It is well known that the electrolyte in a battery plays a critical role in fast-charging capability of the battery because it determines the rate of ion transport together with its derived electrode/electrolyte interphases on both cathode and anode of the battery. In this study, the effects of contents of salt, coordinating solvent, and noncoordinating diluent on salt dissociation degree and electrolyte ionic conductivity are investigated, and a controlled solvation structure electrolyte is developed to improve the lithium ion mobility and conductivity in the electrolyte and to enhance the kinetics and stability of the electrode/electrolyte interphases in the battery. This electrolyte enables fast-charging capability of high energy density lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) at up to 5 C rate (12-min charging), which significantly outperforms the state-of-the-art electrolyte. The controlled solvation structure sheds light on the future electrolyte design for fast-charging LIBs.
25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
Strategies for thorium fuel cycle transition in the SD-TMSR
Liquid-fueled Molten Salt Reactor (MSR) systems represent advances in safety, economics, and sustainability. The MSR has been designed to operate with a Th/ 233 U fuel cycle with 233 U used as startup fissile material. Since 233 U does not exist in nature, we must examine other available fissile materials to start up these reactor concepts. This work investigates the fuel cycle and neutronics performance of the Single-fluid Double-zone Thorium-based Molten Salt Reactor (SD-TMSR) with different fissile material loadings at startup: High Assay Low Enriched Uranium (HALEU) (19.79%), Pu mixed with HALEU (19.79%), reactor-grade Pu (a mixture of Pu isotopes chemically extracted from Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR) spent nuclear fuel (SNF) with 33 GW d/tHM burnup), transuranic elements (TRU) from Light Water Reactor (LWR) SNF, and 233 U. The MSR burnup routine provided by SERPENT-2 is used to simulate the online reprocessing and refueling in the SD-TMSR. The effective multiplication factor, fuel salt composition evolution, and net production of 233 U are studied in the present work. Additionally, the neutron spectrum shift during the reactor operation is calculated. The results show that the continuous flow of reactorgrade Pu helps transition to the thorium fuel cycle within a relatively short time (≈ 4.5 years) compared to 26 years for 233 U startup fuel. Finally, using TRU as the initial fuel materials offers the possibility of operating the SD-TMSR for an extended period of time (≈ 40 years) without any external feed of 233 U.
11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗
Conceptual core design of the molten metal fueled microreactor with self-regulating capability
The microreactor concept has received significant attention in the United States for its lower capital investment, siting flexibility and high mobility. A microreactor aims to provide reliable electricity in remote communities, mining areas, or isolated islands, which will save the high fuel transportation cost. Thus, minimizing the staff level for operating and maintaining a microreactor is desirable. The objective of the study is to design a self-regulated Molten Metal fueled microReactor core (MMR) and to demonstrate the self-regulating capability of the MMR core. The control of the reactor is solely relying on reactivity feedbacks from fuel temperature perturbation. Molten UMn (liquid form at the temperature over 720°C) was utilized as the fuel material in MMR due to the larger thermal expansion coefficient compared to the conventional solid fuel. The MMR core has a fast neutron spectrum, which corresponds to a small burnup reactivity swing. The core design parameters were selected based on DAKOTA, REBUS, and ANLHTP calculations. The MMR is designed to run for 10 years at a power level of 15 MWth. Furthermore, no refueling is needed during the reactor lifetime. The system dynamic analyses were performed, and it was found that the reactor can be self-regulating within a temperature range of 800 ± 80°C for a loss of heat sink transient.
21 SPECIFIC NUCLEAR REACTORS AND ASSOCIATED PLANTS↗
High-fidelity simulations of the run-in process for a pebble-bed reactor
Pebble-bed reactors (PBRs) rely on a continual feed of fuel pebbles being cycled through the core. As a result, they require a “run-in” period in order to reach an equilibrium state. The run-in period for a PBR is a complex, time-dependent problem that requires the injection of new fuel, different types of fuel, and power increases. This complexity in the run-in makes it important to capture the physical processes in order to generate an accurate representation. The present work details the creation of a high-fidelity Monte Carlo methodology for analyzing the run-in and subsequent approach to equilibrium for PBRs. The methodology entails a Python module wrapped around Serpent so as to perform neutronics calculations, move pebbles, refuel the core, and discharge pebbles, thereby modeling the explicit behavior of the PBR run-in. Further, three run-in simulations (a constant temperature profile, a linear temperature profile, and a constant temperature profile using control rods) were examined in order to identify the key physical phenomena present in the run-in process. Utilizing kugelpy, we found the inclusion of a temperature profile to be important for accurately capturing a discharge burnup (around 141 MWd/kg), a consistent k-eff (around 1.005), and an average pebble power (around 2.5 kW/pebble) that all fall within acceptable limits.
22 GENERAL STUDIES OF NUCLEAR REACTORS↗
OR-AGENT framework – Architecting electrified heavy-duty drayage applications
The widespread adoption of zero-emission vehicles in heavy-duty (HD) commercial freight transportation faces considerable technoeconomic challenges. For heavy-duty trucks, ensuring high uptime, cost parity with diesel, and safety standards is especially critical as these vehicles operate over long distances with heavy loads, where any downtime or off-nominal behaviors significantly impacts logistics, productivity, and the total cost of ownership. Unlike traditional diesel refueling, BEV charging infrastructure must be co-optimized with vehicle deployment, operational demands, and grid capacity to ensure cost-effective and reliable freight operations. However, the lack of a standardized ownership and service model has led to a fragmented approach—where commercial vehicle operators may invest in, own, and maintain both vehicle/batteries and charging/energy infrastructure. This disconnect may exclude energy service providers from the equation, forcing fleet operators to explore ‘behind-the-fence’ energy solutions that increase capital investment, operational downtime, overhead costs, and, in some cases, net carbon emissions. To address these issues, this study introduces OR-AGENT (Optimal Regional Architecture Generation for Efficient National Transport), a comprehensive modeling framework that integrates powertrain architectures, charging infrastructures, and energy backbone systems into a cohesive strategy. In this paper, OR-AGENT is applied to develop an interconnected systems architecture for energy efficiency and resiliency enhancement of heavy-duty drayage vehicles at the Port of Savannah, GA. This framework showcases an interconnected systems approach to electrifying heavy-duty drayage vehicles at the Port of Savannah, GA. The study assessed BEVs with 400–1200 kWh battery capacities, accounting for seasonal variations in weather and freight routing. A diverse charging mix (150 kW–1250 kW) was evaluated alongside grid capacity constraints, cost, and carbon intensity analysis, leading to the development of a strategic microgrid/Distributed Energy Resources (DER) deployment architecture to ensure a reliable and sustainable transition. However, the findings also highlight the need for alternative zero-emission solutions for remaining trips, such as larger batteries, electrified roadways, hydrogen powertrains, or net-zero emission fuels. In conclusion, the findings are incorporated into a Total Cost of Ownership (TCO) model to identify optimal architectures for an interconnected electrified ecosystem.
Commercial vehicles↗
Levelized cost of charging of extreme fast charging with stationary LMO/LTO batteries
Extreme DC fast charging for electric vehicles (EVs) could be competitive with the internal combustion engine refueling experience and enable longer-distance travel, which could help with EV adoption and decarbonization, but these systems have high capital costs and extremely variable high-power demands. Behind-the-meter systems (BTMS) could support extreme-fast-charging (XFC) stations to increase nationwide adoption of EVs. Here, this study examines the optimal break-even levelized cost of charging (LCOC) across 96 BTMS scenarios to enable low-wait XFC stations providing 200 miles of charge in 10 min. This research simulates LCOC via synthetic XFC-capable EV loads, machine-learned battery life models from testing data, and nonlinear optimal controls, co-minimizing complex utility costs and battery replacements. An aggregate optimal BTMS design treating each EV load as equal likely gives an optimal LCOC per utility rate, the average of which is $\$$0.59/kWh. In addition, the sensitivity of optimal and off-optimal design factors, the long-life LMO/LTO chemistry, and optimized controls are analyzed. The battery control model, based on battery stressors to compare chemistries, optimizes LMO/LTO resting state of charge and cycle depth without compromising cost reduction, which enables greater flexibility in operation. The LCOC savings due to replacement reduction are small, up to $\$$0.035/kWh (6%), with an average of $\$$0.02/kWh (3.5%). Compared with gasoline stations, the aggregate XFC station design achieves comparable speed, experience of service, and cost at $\$$3.81/gal gasoline, showing that EVs can replace gasoline vehicles even for longer-distance travel.
25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
Total cost of ownership of vehicle electrification and fuel switching options for light-duty and heavy-duty vehicles
Projecting the transition from combustion engines to battery-based powertrains is complex becuase it involves numerous interdependent decisions. This study estimates total cost of ownership (TCO) to assess the economic viability of powertrain electrification, focusing exclusively on advances in vehicle and fuel technologies. Under two bounding technology-progress scenarios, we develop vehicle designs and fuel cost trajectories, which serve as inputs to TCO projections for selected classes from 2021 to 2050. We analyzed a small sport utility vehicle (SUV) to represent the light-duty vehicle (LDV) sector, and four medium- and heavy-duty vehicle (MHDV) classes: Class 6 box delivery, Class 8 drayage, Class 8 long-haul, and Class 8 transit bus. For each class, we compared the TCO of battery electric vehicles (BEVs) and fuel cell hybrid electric vehicles (FCHEVs) against conventional internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs). The results show that modern ICEVs generally have lower TCO; however, BEVs and FCHEVs could match or have lower TCOs than ICEVs over time, depending on technological progress. In LDVs, BEV300 is projected to deliver the lowest TCO by 2050, particularly under the high-progress scenario. In MHDVs, both BEVs and FCHEVs could become more cost-competitive than ICEVs by 2050 in the high-progress case. Beyond these results, the findings suggest further investigation is warranted for BEV charging infrastructure, FCHEV hydrogen refueling infrastructure, and MHDV charging strategies. In conclusion, these factors could reduce the fuel-cost share of TCO and enhance the competitiveness of BEVs and FCHEVs relative to ICEVs.
Battery electric vehicle↗
The cold high-pressure approach to hydrogen delivery
In view of the very expensive and wasteful nature of today's approaches to H 2 delivery, in this work we explore the possibility of transporting cold (200 K) high pressure (875 bar) H 2 in thermally insulated trailers and dispensing H 2 directly from the trailer, with the potential to eliminate station compressor, cascade, and refrigerator, leading to major reductions in station complexity, maintenance, electricity consumption, and cost, while improving functionality by enabling essentially unlimited back to back refuels, and improving safety due to reduced H 2 expansion energy at low temperature. Detailed techno-economic analysis shows promise for substantial delivery cost reductions through cold high pressure H 2 dispensed directly from the trailer. Results indicate that: (1) Terminal operations for cold high pressure H 2 delivery are $\$$0.32/kg H 2 more expensive than for 350 bar compressed gas delivery (today's lowest cost H 2 delivery technology) due to higher level of pressurization (to 1000 bar) and chilling needs (to 165 K). (2) Trailer cost drops slightly ($\$$0.73 vs. $\$$0.81/kg H 2 for a 350 bar trailer) due to increased capacity (1035 kg H 2 delivered vs. 700 kg) compensating for increased capital cost ($\$$906,900 for cold high pressure H 2 vs. $\$$634,000 for 350 bar trailer). (3) Cold hydrogen delivery presents major advantages in fueling station cost, reduced from $\$$1.27 to $\$$0.46/kg H 2 due to elimination of major system components: compressor, cascade, and chiller. (4) Total compression cost (terminal + station) drops from $\$$0.92/kg H 2 ($\$$0.32 terminal and $\$$0.60 station) for 350 bar trailers to $\$$0.55/kg H 2 (all at the terminal) for cold high pressure H 2 . (5) Elimination of small-scale station compressors is the main contributor to reduced delivery cost due to their inefficiency, capital expense, and maintenance needs. In summary, total delivery cost reduction vs. 350 bar trailer equals $\$$0.58/kg H 2 (from $\$$2.96 to 2.38/kg H 2 ), equivalent to 24% of the total delivery cost. This large cost advantage will improve the economics of H 2 vehicles facilitating the transition to a future of zero emission transportation.
08 HYDROGEN↗
Numerical predictions of cryogenic hydrogen vertical jets
Here, a comparison of Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) predictions with measurements is presented for cryo-compressed hydrogen vertical jets. The stagnation conditions of the experiments are characteristic of unintended leaks from pipe systems that connect cryogenic hydrogen storage tanks and could be encountered at a fuel cell refueling station. Jets with pressure up to 5 bar and temperatures just above the saturation liquid temperature were examined. Comparisons are made to the centerline mass fraction and temperature decay rates, the radial profiles of mass fraction and the contours of volume fraction. Two notional nozzle approaches are tested to model the under-expanded jet that was formed in the tests with pressures above 2 bar. In both approaches the mass and momentum balance from the throat to the notional nozzle are solved, while the temperature at the notional nozzle was assumed equal to the nozzle temperature in the first approach and was calculated by an energy balance in the second approach. The two approaches gave identical results. Satisfactory agreement with the measurements was found in terms of centerline mass fraction and temperature. However, for test with 3 and 4 bar release the concentration was overpredicted. Furthermore, a wider radial spread was observed in the predictions possibly revealing higher degree of diffusion using the k-ε turbulence model. An integral model for cryogenic jets was also developed and provided good results. Finally, a test simulation was performed with an ambient temperature jet and compared to the cold jet showing that warm jets decay faster than cold jets.
08 HYDROGEN↗
Hydrogen carriers: Production, transmission, decomposition, and storage
Recognizing the potential role of liquid hydrogen carriers in overcoming the inherent limitations in transporting and storing gaseous and liquid hydrogen, a complete production and use scenario is postulated and analyzed for perspective one-way and two-way carriers. The carriers, methanol, ammonia and toluene/MCH (methylcyclohexane), are produced at commercially viable scales in a central location, transmitted by rail or pipelines for 2000 miles, and decomposed near city gates to generate fuel-cell quality hydrogen for distribution to refueling stations. In terms of the levelized cost of H 2 distributed to the stations, methanol is less expensive to produce (1.22 dollars per kg-H 2 ) than MCH (1.35 dollars per kg-H 2 ) or ammonia (2.20 dollars per kg-H 2 ). Levelized train transmission cost is smaller for methanol (0.63 dollars per kg-H 2 ) than ammonia (1.29 dollars per kg-H 2 ) or toluene/MCH system (2.07 dollars per kg-H 2 ). Levelized decomposition cost is smaller for ammonia (0.30-1.06 dollars per kg-H 2 ) than MCH (0.54-1.22 dollars per kg-H 2 ) or methanol (0.43-1.12 dollars per kg-H 2 ). Over the complete range of demand investigated, 10-350 tpd-H 2 , the levelized cost of H2 distributed to stations is aligned as methanol « ammonia ~ MCH. With pipelines at much larger scale, 6000 tpd-H 2 , the levelized cost decreases by ~1 dollar per kg-H 2 for ammonia and MCH and much less for methanol. Methanol is a particularly attractive low-risk carrier in the transition phase with lower than 50-tpd H 2 demand.
08 HYDROGEN↗
Liquid hydrogen storage system for heavy duty trucks: Configuration, performance, cost, and safety
In this work, we investigate the potential of liquid hydrogen storage (LH 2 ) on-board Class-8 heavy duty trucks to resolve many of the range, weight, volume, refueling time and cost issues associated with 350 or 700-bar compressed H 2 storage in Type-3 or Type-4 composite tanks. We present and discuss conceptual storage system configurations capable of supplying H 2 to fuel cells at 5-bar with or without on-board LH 2 pumps. Structural aspects of storing LH 2 in double walled, vacuum insulated, and low-pressure Type-1 tanks are investigated. Structural materials and insulation methods are discussed for service at cryogenic temperatures and mitigation of heat leak to prevent LH 2 boiloff. Failure modes of the liner and shell are identified and analyzed using the regulatory codes and detailed finite element (FE) methods. The conceptual systems are subjected to a Failure modes and effects analysis (FMEA) and a safety, codes, and standards (SCS) review to rank failures and identify safety gaps. The results indicate that the conceptual systems can reach 19.6% usable gravimetric capacity, 40.9 g-H 2 /L usable volumetric capacity and $174-183/kg-H 2 cost (2016 USD) when manufactured 100,000 systems annually.
08 HYDROGEN↗
Material analysis of metal hydrides for bulk hydrogen storage
The United States Department of Energy (DOE) Hydrogen Storage Engineering Center of Excellence (HSECoE), 2009–2014, was established to evaluate the viability of material-based hydrogen storage for light duty vehicles. The HSECoE concluded that there were no metal hydrides that simultaneously met the DOE targets for gravimetric and volumetric capacity, and rate of onboard refueling. However, it was noted by the DOE that potential applications existed for stationary hydrogen storage systems. An application of particular interest is using a metal-hydride to store a hydrogen supply for fuel cell backup power to a 5 MWe data center. A generalized numerical model that coupled mass and energy conservation, chemical kinetics and thermodynamics was developed to simulate the discharge process for a given metal-hydride. The model was applied to an interstitial and a complex metal-hydride. In conclusion, it was found that the interstitial metal-hydride, which is discharged by a pressure swing is preferrable in a practical sense to the complex metal-hydride, which requires a temperature swing discharge process.
08 HYDROGEN↗
Design and permitting considerations of a floating hydrogen production and dispensing Barge for the Port of San Francisco
This paper reports on the design of a Floating Hydrogen Production and Dispensing Barge destined for the Port of San Francisco (SF). The H 2 Barge is designed to produce renewable H 2 at the rate of ∼530 kg/day, storing 512 kg of hydrogen at 517-bar, allowing fast refueling of hydrogen fuel cell vessels and land-side hydrogen delivery trailers for distribution into the nascent SF hydrogen ecosystem. The broader considerations that impacted H 2 Barge design are also described. An account is given of a new review process formulated by the United States Coast Guard (USCG) to review this first-of-its-kind maritime implementation of hydrogen technology. Furthermore, the immediate goals of the H 2 Barge Project are to 1) demonstrate the feasibility, viability and methods of hydrogen production, storage and fueling in a maritime context, 2) help shape (where needed) and navigate the required local, state and federal regulatory gauntlet and 3) catalyze a “green hydrogen ecosystem” (both marine and landside) with locally produced renewable hydrogen at the San Francisco waterfront.
08 HYDROGEN↗