Search NASA⌕ Search

SEARCH · Search NASA

Results for “Small”

Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

Quote a phrase for an exact phrase match. Source license links do not imply unrestricted reuse.

At least 217 records · Page 12
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2024

Small circle expansion for adjoint QCD 2 with periodic boundary conditions

We study 1 + 1-dimensional SU(N) gauge theory coupled to one adjoint multiplet of Majorana fermions on a small spatial circle of circumference L. Using periodic boundary conditions, we derive the effective action for the quantum mechanics of the holonomy and the fermion zero modes in perturbation theory up to order (gL) 3 . When the adjoint fermion mass-squared is tuned to g 2 N/(2π), the effective action is found to be an example of supersymmetric quantum mechanics with a nontrivial superpotential. We separate the states into the ℤN center symmetry sectors (universes) labeled by p = 0, . . . , N – 1 and show that in one of the sectors the supersymmetry is unbroken, while in the others it is broken spontaneously. These results give us new insights into the (1, 1) supersymmetry of adjoint QCD 2 , which has previously been established using light-cone quantization. When the adjoint mass is set to zero, our effective Hamiltonian does not depend on the fermions at all, so that there are 2 N−1 degenerate sectors of the Hilbert space. This construction appears to provide an explicit realization of the extended symmetry of the massless model, where there are 2 2N−2 operators that commute with the Hamiltonian. We also generalize our results to other gauge groups G, for which supersymmetry is found at the adjoint mass-squared g 2 h ∨ /(2π), where h ∨ is the dual Coxeter number of G.

effective field theories↗
DOE OSTI2025

Small scale electron linear accelerators for industrial applications

Linear accelerators (linacs), producing electron or X-ray radiation in the MeV range, are critical tools for industrial irradiation, medical device sterilization, food pasteurization, non-destructive testing, security, medical, and many other applications. Many of these applications require compact and flexible radiation sources. In this paper, we present new technologies for small-scale electron linear accelerators and examples of their practical implementations. Furthermore, these developments include low energy accelerators with self-shielding options and form factors, ranging from cabinet-size to hand-portable generators; medium-energy accelerators for novel radiotherapy and security applications; and high-energy 10 MeV linacs capable of reaching 20–35 kW beam power for emerging industrial and phytosanitary applications

43 PARTICLE ACCELERATORS↗
DOE OSTI2025

Initial Conditions of Planet Formation: Time Constraints from Small Bodies and the Lifetime of Reservoirs in the Solar Protoplanetary Disk

This review explores the timescales of the initial phase of planet formation, from nebular dust (CAIs and chondrules) to planetesimal accretion and differentiation, using evidence from meteorite research. Aluminium-Mg systematics of CAIs indicate either an extended period of CAI formation (∼0.3 Ma) or an initial 26 Al heterogeneity, with evidence supporting a homogeneous 26 Al abundance in the protoplanetary disk. Thermal and aqueous alteration on the parent body can disturb the U-Pb and Al-Mg chronometers in chondrules. Focusing on relatively robust isochron data from plagioclase of pristine (types ≤3.05) chondrites indicates a shift in chondrule formation locations, moving from the inner to the outer disk over time. Ages of basaltic achondrites show that silicate differentiation on small bodies was well underway within the first few million years (Ma) of our solar system. Their age record, however, reveals inconsistencies between different chronometers, partly caused by (i) secondary disturbances due to thermal metamorphism, aqueous alteration, or impacts, (ii) the presence of xenolithic minerals, and (iii) potentially variable initial 26 Al abundances due to disturbances at the mineral scale. Nucleosynthetic isotope data indicate that parent bodies of iron and stony meteorites formed in two distinct regions within the protoplanetary disk: the inner, non-carbonaceous (NC) and the outer, carbonaceous (CC) region. Based on Hf-W chronometry it has been demonstrated that NC and CC parent bodies of magmatic iron meteorites segregated their cores within ∼1–3 Ma after CAI formation, implying that parent body accretion occurred within <1 Ma in both reservoirs. Combining accretion ages with nucleosynthetic data further reveals that, at first order, NC and CC reservoirs in the solar protoplanetary disk were established within 1 Ma and existed over several Ma with limited exchange between them. In the CR chondrite accretion region of the disk, planetary bodies formed over at least 3 Ma, while in most other regions, formation spanned at least 1 Ma, with minimal changes in nucleosynthetic isotope compositions. Aerodynamical size sorting of dust likely introduced or amplified some of these variations.

26Al distribution↗
DOE OSTI2025

Lessons learned from the design and operation of a small-scale cross-flow tidal turbine

In 2023, a first-generation prototype of a small-scale marine current turbine was operated in Sequim Bay, Washington (USA) for 141 days. The system, referred to as the Turbine Lander, was the product of a laboratory-to-field effort to develop a system that enables enhanced ocean sensing or vehicle recharge in remote, energetic settings. The turbine consists of a vertical-axis, cantilevered rotor (1.19 m x 0.85 m) with four foils installed on a gravity foundation. A broader range of constraints including the deployment strategy, site characteristics, and estimated loads, drove the system’s design. This work presents the design, characterization, operation, and post-recovery engineering assessment of the Turbine Lander. Pre-deployment characterization efforts yielded a peak power coefficient of approximately 0.3 for the rotor, although system losses resulted in much lower water-to-wire efficiencies under most operating conditions. The results demonstrate the importance of co-design among key components of the powertrain and control systems to achieve acceptable system efficiency across operating conditions.

Co-design↗
DOE OSTI2025

Material extrusion with integrated compression molding of NdFeB/SmFeN nylon bonded magnets using small- and large-scale pellet-based 3D-printers

High-density bonded rare-earth magnets are manufactured using pellet-fed additive manufacturing (AM)/material extrusion and an integrated additive manufacturing-compression molding (AM-CM) process. Neodymium iron boron – samarium iron nitride in polyamide 12 (NdFeB-SmFeN/PA12) of 93 % weight fraction (65 % volume fraction) are used for the study. The mechanical properties (tensile strength and modulus), magnetic properties (maximum energy density, coercivity, remanence) are reported. Manufacturing parameters such as layer height, barrel temperatures, screw speed and gantry feed rate are optimized to obtain the highest possible density of the magnets using a small-scale desktop material extrusion printer. Large scale integrated additive manufacturing-compression molding (AM-CM) is then utilized to increase the density of the magnets by reducing porosity defects common in the material extrusion process. The density of as-printed magnets was 5.2 g/cm 3 with a BH max value of 124.14 kJ/m 3 , tensile strength of 20 MPa and a modulus of 2 GPa. AM-CM increased the density of the compound by 5.5 % (5.49 g/cm 3 ). The reduction in porosity was confirmed using X-ray tomography (XCT). Improvement in mechanical strength of the material was also observed, with an increase in tensile strength of 25 % (25.09 MPa) and increase in tensile modulus of 275 % (5.49 GPa). Scanning electron microscopy showed increased particle-matrix adhesion with the integrated AM-CM process.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2025

Water effects on NH 3 -SCR over Cu-based small-pore zeolite catalysts: A review

The selective catalytic reduction (SCR) of NO x with NH 3 as the reductant over small-pore Cu-zeolite catalysts is a leading strategy for controlling emissions from diesel engines and mobile sources. While the hydrothermal stability of Cu-zeolites such as Cu-SSZ-13, Cu-SAPO-34, and Cu-SSZ-39 has been extensively studied, the multifaceted role of water vapor under operating conditions has only recently received systematic attention. Water impacts multiple aspects of SCR catalysis, including NO x conversion, N 2 O formation, Cu ion speciation, redox kinetics, and surface reactions. This review comprehensively summarizes recent advances in understanding the effect of water on NH 3 -SCR over Cu-based catalysts. For Cu-SSZ-13, water vapor induces both inhibitory and promotive effects depending on temperature, Cu loading, and Si/Al ratio by altering NH 3 adsorption, Cu mobility, and redox half-cycle kinetics. Studies have revealed that water can suppress ammonium nitrate formation at low temperatures and enhance nitrate pathways at higher temperatures. Over Cu-SAPO-34, water promotes NO conversion by improving Cu(II) reducibility and strengthening Brønsted acidity. First-principles calculations confirm that water-coordinated Cu species lower O 2 activation barriers. In Cu-SSZ-39, water was found to facilitate Cu reduction, migration, and O 2 activation, resulting in superior water tolerance and unexpected catalytic promotion. Both experimental and computational studies highlight that water vapor exerts complex, catalyst-dependent effects on NH 3 -SCR performance, underscoring the need for tailored catalyst designs that leverage beneficial water interactions while minimizing inhibitory impacts.

Ammonia selective catalytic reduction↗
DOE OSTI2024

Effect of reaction media on hydrogenolysis of polyethylene plastic waste: Polymer-surface interactions in small alkane/polymer blends

The polymer reaction media and its properties can be altered by recycling a fraction of liquid products or adding alkane solvents. Less clear is whether this strategy affects hydrogenolysis. Herein, we investigated the effect of short-chain alkanes C n consisting of n carbons (n=8, 16, and 32) on the upcycling of high-density polyethylene (HDPE) plastic waste to lubricant-range products over Ru/TiO 2 catalysts by multiscale simulations and experiments. First, we trained a force field for polymer/surface interactions on a Ru 22 nanoparticle (NP) supported on TiO 2 . Using replica exchange molecular dynamics simulations, we studied the effect of small hydrocarbons on the adsorption of a surrogate polymer, C 142 , on the catalyst. We found segregation of long chains (C 142 ) at the catalyst surface due to the enthalpy gained by adsorbing more C-C bonds of the long chains, compensating for entropic losses upon adsorption. Short-chain molecules decrease the adsorbed carbons of long chains on the Ru NP due to blocking Ru active sites. Compared to the bulk chains, competitive adsorption results in a broader, heavy-tailed distribution of end-to-end distance of adsorbed chains. Our experiments demonstrated that catalyst activity declines significantly beyond simple dilution due to changes in polymer adsorption, and tuning the reaction media by creating suitable blends impacts hydrogenolysis. Density distributions for a 50:50%wt mixture of PP and PE show that PE chains are segregated at the surface, so they are prone to C-C bond breaking much faster than PP chains. H/D exchange experiments show preferential deuteration of PE, while CH 3 groups of PP remain undeuterated. Furthermore, this may be explained by the preferential sorption of PE over PP, leading to specific distribution in the polymer blend.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2025

Mechanistic insights into N 2 O formation as a side product in NH 3 -SCR over small pore Cu-zeolites

Here, the present contribution provides clarity to N 2 O formation mechanisms and key influencing factors during low temperature NH 3 -SCR, with the goal of enabling the rational design of advanced SCR catalysts with low greenhouse gas impact. By studying more than 50 small pore Cu-exchanged zeolite SCR catalyst samples, including model catalysts synthesized in our laboratories and state-of-the-art industrial catalysts, we explored a wide range of factors affecting N 2 O formation. These factors included Cu loading, support Si/Al ratio, support topology, catalyst aging, reaction temperature and reactant feed composition effects. We probed N 2 O formation under both steady-state SCR, and during NH 4 NO 3 decomposition via temperature programmed desorption (TPD). Finally, we used DFT to probe energetics of possible N 2 O formation pathways. Based on these studies, we confirm that low temperature N 2 O formation occurs via multiple reaction pathways that all involve NH 4 NO 3 and are supported by Cu moieties that facilitate in-situ NO oxidation to NO 2 .

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2024

Decarbonization of heat pump dual fuel systems using a practical model predictive control: Field demonstration in a small commercial building

In the transition from fossil fuel to electrified heating, a concerning trend is emerging in certain regions of the US. Owners of buildings with gas-based systems leave them in place after adding heat pumps (HPs). Existing control solutions for these hybrid (dual fuel) systems are rudimentary and fall short of realizing the full carbon reduction potential of these systems. Model predictive control (MPC) is often regarded as the benchmark for achieving optimal control in integrated systems. However, in the case of small-medium commercial buildings (SMCBs), the control and communication infrastructure required to facilitate the implementation of such advanced controls is often lacking. This paper presents a field implementation of easy-to-deploy MPC for a dual fuel heating system consisting of HPs and a gas-fired furnace (GF) for SMCBs. The control system is deployed on an open-source middleware platform and utilizes low-cost sensor devices to be used for real SMCBs without major retrofits. Here, we demonstrated this MPC in a real office building with 5 HPs and 1 GF for 2 months. The test results showed that MPC reduced 27% of cost while completely eliminating GF usage by shifting 23% of the thermal load from occupied-peak time to non-occupied-non-peak times.

29 ENERGY PLANNING, POLICY, AND ECONOMY↗
DOE OSTI2025

Information theory optimization of signals from small-angle scattering measurements

Small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) of particles in solution informs on the conformational states and assemblies of biological macromolecules (bioSAXS) outside of cryo- and solid-state conditions. In bioSAXS, the SAXS measurement under dilute conditions is resolution limited, and through an inverse Fourier transform, the measured SAXS intensities directly relate to the physical space occupied by the particles via the P (r)-distribution. Yet, this inverse transform of SAXS data has been historically cast as an ill-posed, ill-conditioned problem requiring an indirect approach. Here, we show that through the applications of matrix and information theories, the inverse transform of SAXS intensity data is a well-conditioned problem. The so-called ill-conditioning of the inverse problem is directly related to the Shannon number. By exploiting the oversampling enabled by modern detectors, a direct inverse Fourier transform of the SAXS data is possible, provided the recovered information does not exceed the Shannon number. The Shannon limit corresponds to the maximum number of significant singular values that can be recovered in a SAXS experiment, suggesting this relationship is a fundamental property of band-limited inverse integral transform problems. This correspondence reduces the complexity of the inverse problem to the Shannon limit and maximum dimension. We propose a hybrid scoring function using an information theory framework that assesses both the quality of the model-data fit as well as the quality of the recovered P (r)-distribution. The hybrid score utilizes the Akaike information criteria and Durbin-Watson statistic that considers parameter-model complexity, i.e., degrees of freedom, and the randomness of the model-data residuals. The described tests and findings extend the boundaries for bioSAXS by completing the information theory formalism initiated by Peter B. Moore to enable a quantitative measure of resolution in SAXS, robustly determine maximum dimension, and more precisely define the best parameter model appropriately representing the observed scattering data.

Rambo, Robert P. [Science and Technology Facilitie↗
DOE OSTI2024

Train small, model big: Scalable physics simulators via reduced order modeling and domain decomposition

Numerous cutting-edge scientific technologies originate at the laboratory scale, but transitioning them to practical industry applications is a formidable challenge. Traditional pilot projects at intermediate scales are costly and time-consuming. An alternative, the pilot-scale model, relies on high-fidelity numerical simulations, but even these simulations can be computationally prohibitive at larger scales. To overcome these limitations, we propose a scalable, physics-constrained reduced order model (ROM) method. The ROM identifies critical physics modes from small-scale unit components, projecting governing equations onto these modes to create a reduced model that retains essential physics details. We also employ Discontinuous Galerkin Domain Decomposition (DG-DD) to apply ROM to unit components and interfaces, enabling the construction of large-scale global systems without data at such large scales. Here this method is demonstrated on the Poisson and Stokes flow equations, showing that it can solve equations about 15–40 times faster with only ~1% relative error. Furthermore, ROM takes one order of magnitude less memory than the full order model, enabling larger scale predictions at a given memory limitation.

71 CLASSICAL AND QUANTUM MECHANICS, GENERAL PHYSIC↗
DOE OSTI2025

Carbon dots from surface-capping/passivation of small carbon nanoparticles with nanoscale titanium dioxide

Carbon dots are classically defined as small carbon nanoparticles (CNPs) with effective surface passivation, which has been accomplished predominantly by surface organic functionalization. In the current work, the passivation is achieved by the surface coating of CNPs with nanoscale TiO 2 for CNP/TiO 2 core/shell nanostructures, which are analogous to conventional semiconductor core/shell quantum dots (QDs). The TiO 2 capping of CNPs results in substantial enhancements in the fluorescence quantum yields, also analogous to the similar enhancements famously known for the semiconductor QDs. In conclusion, mechanistic implications of the findings, including the associated further validation on the classical definition of carbon dots, are discussed.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2025

Scaling of energy delivered through an electrostatic discharge to a small series load

We study the energy delivered through a small-resistance series “victim” load during electrostatic discharge events in air. For gap lengths over 1 mm, the fraction of the stored energy delivered is mostly gap-length independent, with a slight decrease at larger gaps due to electrode geometry. The energy to the victim scales linearly with circuit capacitance and victim load resistance but is not strongly dependent on circuit inductance. This scaling leads to a simple approach to predicting the maximum energy that will be delivered to a series resistance for the case where the victim load resistance is lower than the spark resistance.

42 ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2026

Machine learning-enhanced MPC for demand flexibility in small commercial buildings: An experimental study

Small- and medium-sized commercial buildings (SMCBs) represent the majority of U.S. commercial building stock and a significant share of peak electricity demand, yet they often lack centralized building automation systems, representing a significant untapped resource for urban energy management. This infrastructure gap makes advanced control implementation challenging, limiting the potential for widespread demand flexibility. Model Predictive Control (MPC) has shown strong potential for load shifting, peak demand reduction, and cost savings, but its effectiveness is hindered by unmeasured disturbances such as internal heat gains. This paper presents a Hybrid MPC framework that integrates a physics-based gray-box building thermal model, identified using a lumped disturbance (LD) approach, with a machine learning (ML) model for forecasting unmeasured disturbances. The hybrid approach is designed for buildings with multiple individually controlled heat pump and thermostat pairs, common in SMCBs, and aims to optimize coordinated scheduling of multiple heat pumps under dynamic electricity pricing while respecting comfort constraints. The methodology is validated through both simulations of case study buildings and experimental studies at a highly-instrumented test facility. Simulation results show that the Hybrid MPC achieves substantial load shifting and peak demand reduction, approaching the performance of an ideal MPC with perfect disturbance knowledge, and outperforming a conventional MPC without disturbance forecasting. In experiments, the Hybrid MPC reduced daily HVAC energy costs by 8.7%, peak-price time load (load shifting) by 41.7%, and peak demand by 29.2% compared to baseline control, demonstrating comparable benefits to the 11.6% cost savings, 42.9% load shifting, and 23.2% peak reduction of the ideal MPC. These results demonstrate that the proposed hybrid modeling approach can significantly improve MPC performance in real-world SMCB applications without requiring additional disturbance measurements.

Demand Flexibility↗
DOE OSTI2024

Wetting mechanism and alteration of nano-sized shale pores: Insights from contrast variation small angle neutron scattering

Wettability of tight shale is crucial for fluid flow and mass transport process in energy geosciences. However, understanding the interfacial chemistry and wetting mechanisms at sub-nano-pore scales remains a formidable challenge. Here, in this study, the Contrast Variation technique of Small Angle Neutron Scattering (CV-SANS) is employed to investigate shale’s interfacial chemistry using reagents that possess a range of different polarities, including water, n-decane, toluene, and dimethyl methanamide. Through five different experimental strategies, we have demonstrated a successful modification of shale wettability, ranging from enhancement, weakening, to reversal. Delving into the mechanisms, we illustrated the crucial role of pre-existing liquid films in these changes, where the uniquely co-existing polar and non-polar functional groups in dimethyl methanamide acted as a conduit for interfacial chemistry adjustments. Furthermore, a solvent immersion led to matrix dilation as well as liberation of residual oil-occupied pores, resulting in altered pore size distributions, with hydrogen bonding playing a significant role in the polar groups. Interestingly, despite shale exhibiting a stronger affinity for oil over water, hydrophilic solvents induced more substantial dilation than lipophilic ones. Collectively, this work elucidates the dynamic change of interfacial chemistry via the configuration of polarity using chemical reagents, and the CV-SANS technique underscores its invaluable utilities in decoding the interfacial wettability traits in nanopore space of shale.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2026

The effectiveness of D 2 pellet and gas injection in reducing intra-ELM tungsten erosion and heat flux in the DIII-D small angle slot divertor

Edge localized modes (ELMs) in H-mode plasmas can melt and erode plasma-facing components (PFCs) and lead to impurities in the core, reducing confinement. This study analyzes the use of D 2 pellet and gas injection for ELM mitigation on the DIII-D tokamak during the 2022 Small Angle Slot V-shaped Tungsten (W) (SAS-VW) divertor campaign, reducing W erosion and heat flux during ELMs. D α (656 nm) and WI (400.9 nm) filterscopes and Langmuir probes provide photon emission and electron density/temperature to estimate W atom erosion using the S/XB method, while surface eroding thermocouples measured ELM peak heat flux at the outer strike point (OSP). Thomson Scattering measurements of pedestal T e and n e provided input to predict W divertor erosion and heat flux during ELMs via the Free-Streaming plus Recycling Model (FSRM). While a greater D 2 mass injection rate decreased the ELM peak heat flux, the impact on W erosion was not monotonic. The average ‘large’ intra-ELM W erosion was lower for plasma shots with D 2 mass injection compared to the plasma shots without any D 2 mass injection in the SAS-VW divertor. However, plasma shots did not see significant changes in ‘large’ intra-ELM W divertor erosion as the D 2 mass injection rate increased. On average, the FSRM overestimated SAS-VW experimental intra-ELM W erosion by a factor of 6.9, but the overestimation is reduced to a factor of 3.6 with the implication of C deposition effects. Generally, experimentally measured and predicted quantities were worse for plasma shots with a lower D 2 mass injection rate and corresponding higher plasma carbon (C) impurity percentage (f C ). The discrepancies are postulated to be due to C/W material mixing, for which a simple analytic mixed-material model is presented. These results highlight the importance of incorporating and improving the robustness of a mixed-material layer model in the analysis of PFC erosion on present and future tokamak devices.

Carbon (C)↗
DOE OSTI2025

Compact X-band split electron linac for cabinet-size small-sample irradiators

Many small-scale industrial radiation facilities rely on hazardous radioisotope-based gamma ray irradiators, which are being gradually replaced by alternative technologies, such as particle accelerators. RadiaBeam has developed a compact, cabinet-size, 3 MeV electron-linac-based irradiator to match the penetration of Co-60 and provide high irradiation throughput. Here the linac utilizes X-band RF power to reduce size, employs an innovative split-linac approach to lower costs, and features a novel X-ray conversion target geometry that spreads the beam out across the target, providing a low dose uniformity ratio. In this paper, we discuss the accelerator design, fabrication, and test results.

43 PARTICLE ACCELERATORS↗
DOE OSTI2025

Techno-economic assessment of distributed wellhead RO water treatment for nitrate removal and salinity reduction: A field study in small disadvantaged communities

Techno-economic analysis of distributed wellhead water treatment and desalination (DWTD) systems was carried out based on a three-year field study in three small, disadvantaged communities (DACs) to evaluate the reliability and affordability of upgrading their impaired well water. The local water supplies of the three study DACs, located in Salinas Valley, California, were contaminated with nitrate at levels (~ 12–87 mg/L NO$^{-}_{3}$ - N) ) above the California maximum contaminant level (MCL) of 10 mg/L NO$^{-}_{3}$ - N , and had elevated water salinity (~600–1,600 mg/L total dissolved solids(TDS)) above its secondary MCL (SMCL) of 500 mg/L TDS. Well water nitrate removal and salinity reduction were accomplished via reverse osmosis (RO) based DWTD systems that operated autonomously, supported by remote monitoring and supervisory cyberinfrastructure. Reliable DWTD operation provided treated water quality, with respect to nitrate and salinity, in the range of 0.5–6.3 mg/L NO$^{-}_{3}$ - N and 57–161 mg/L TDS, respectively, which were well below the respective MCL and SMCL. The levelized cost of water treatment was in the range of ~$$2/m 3 - $$2.9/m 3 which aligns with typical residential water costs in California and in the study region, and monthly residential water costs (39 dollars-74 dollars/residential unit/month) were also within the range in California. The study showcased the DWTD approach as a viable and potentially scalable solution for upgrading impaired local potable water supply of communities lacking centralized water delivery infrastructure. However, streamlined permitting processes and standardized regulatory frameworks are critical to promoting wider adoption and maximizing the socio-economic benefits of the DWT approach. Moreover, DACs are likely to require government subsidies in order to cover the CapEx of DWTD systems in addition to upgrade of site infrastructure.

29 ENERGY PLANNING, POLICY, AND ECONOMY↗