Search NASA⌕ Search

SEARCH · Search NASA

Results for “copper complexes”

Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

Quote a phrase for an exact phrase match. Source license links do not imply unrestricted reuse.

At least 217 records · Page 12
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
NASA NTRS1995

Graphite fiber textile preform/copper matrix composites

Graphite fiber reinforced/copper matrix composites have sufficiently high thermal conduction to make them candidate materials for critical heat transmitting and rejection components. The term textile composites arises because the preform is braided from fiber tows, conferring three-dimensional reinforcement and near net shape. The principal issues investigated in the past two years have centered on developing methods to characterize the preform and fabricated composite and on braidability. It is necessary to have an analytic structural description for both processing and final property modeling. The structure of the true 3-D braids used is complex and has required considerable effort to model. A structural mapping has been developed as a foundation for analytic models for thermal conduction and mechanical properties. The conductivity has contributions both from the copper and the reinforcement. The latter is accomplished by graphitization of the fibers, the higher the amount of graphitization the greater the conduction. This is accompanied by an increase in the fiber modulus, which is desirable from a stiffness point of view but decreases the braidability; the highest conductivity fibers are simply too brittle to be braided. Considerable effort has been expended on determining the optimal braidability--conductivity region. While a number of preforms have been fabricated, one other complication intervenes; graphite and copper are immiscible, resulting in a poor mechanical bond and difficulties in infiltration by molten copper. The approach taken is to utilize a proprietary fiber coating process developed by TRA, of Salt Lake City, Utah, which forms an itermediary bond. A number of preforms have been fabricated from a variety of fiber types and two sets of these have been infiltrated with OFHC copper, one with the TRA coating and one without. Mechanical tests have been performed using a small-scale specimen method and show the coated specimens to have superior mechanical properties. Final batches of preforms, including a finned, near net shape tube, are being fabricated and will be infiltrated before summer.

Gilatovs, G. J.↗
DOE OSTI2023

Resolving metal binding properties within subunits of a multimeric enzyme Mnx by surface induced dissociation and native ion mobility mass spectrometry

Multi-subunit enzymes function as coordinated assemblies. Yet most enzymatic assays measure the summed output of all populations in solution and cannot easily differentiate contributions of individual subunits. Native mass spectrometry detects intact protein complexes in the gas phase. Surface induced dissociation further releases subunits from protein complexes while retaining compact conformations and bound ligands. Combined with ion mobility, the released subunits can then be carefully monitored for more in-depth structural analysis. Mnx is a unique bacterial multicopper oxidase complex that oxidizes Mn(II) to form MnO 2 minerals, and is composed of three subunits: MnxG, a multicopper oxidase containing the active site, and two accessory proteins, MnxE and MnxF which also bind copper ions. Other known multicopper oxidases do not require accessory proteins, therefore the functions of MnxE and MnxF are not well understood. Here, we use native mass spectrometry with surface induced dissociation and ion mobility to characterize the metal binding properties of Mnx with two metals, catalytic Cu(II) and Mn(II) substrate. We demonstrate our assay can detect subtle structural changes within each subunit, which are presumably related to the allosteric mechanism. We also noticed that ionic strength and solution composition can impact metal binding and must be carefully investigated for such experiments.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2024

Water-induced surface ordering facilitating the microcutting of ductile metals

Metal cutting is a crucial process in modern manufacturing. Enhancing the machinability of metals can significantly improve their production efficiency and surface integrity. Coating surface-active media (SAM) on the free surface of the metals before cutting is an easy method to improve machinability, which usually pertains to the category of the renowned Rehbinder effect. However, the existing SAM is usually hazardous and complex materials. Besides, the effect of SAM on the local structure of the metal surface remains unclear. In this study, water is employed as a simple yet often overlooked SAM in the microcutting of copper. Using water as SAM also allows the employment of X-ray absorption fine structure spectroscopy (XAFS) to study the local structure of copper with and without water coating. Results show that water coating on the free surface of copper can significantly reduce the cutting force and chip thickness, and improve the surface finish. Interestingly, removing the water coating enables the recovery of the cutting force, demonstrating a reversible effect. Based on the XAFS results and molecular dynamics simulation, a water-induced surface ordering mechanism is proposed to explain the findings from the microcutting experiments. This mechanism suggests that water molecules can induce surface ordering in copper, resulting in reduced surface energy and fracture toughness of copper, thus enhancing machinability. In conclusion, this work provides valuable insights into the comprehension of the Rehbinder effect and shows that picometer-scale modifications of the surface atom arrangement can considerably alter the deformation mode of metals, paving the way for the development of new manufacturing processes.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2020

Interpreting the Operando XANES of Surface-Supported Subnanometer Clusters: When Fluxionality, Oxidation State, and Size Effect Fight.

X-ray absorption near edge structure (XANES) spectroscopy is widely used for operando catalyst characterization. We show that, for highly fluxional supported nanoclusters, the customary extraction of the oxidation state of the metal from the XANES data by fitting to the bulk standards is highly questionable. The XANES signatures as well as the apparent oxidation state for such clusters arise from a complex combination of many factors, and not only from the chemical composition in reaction conditions (e.g., oxygen content in oxidizing atmosphere). The thermally accessible isomerization and population of several structurally distinct cluster forms, cluster-support interaction, and intrinsic size effects all impact the metal oxidation state and XANES signal. We demonstrate this on copper oxide clusters with different compositions, Cu4Ox(x = 2-5) and Cu5Oy (y = 3, 5), deposited on amorphous alumina and ultrananocrystalline diamond, for which we computed the XANES spectra and compare the results to the experiment. We show in addition that fitting the experimental spectrum to calculated spectra of supported clusters can, in contrast, provide good agreement and insight into the spectrum-composition-structure relation. Experimental XANES interpreted using the proposed fitting scheme shows the partial reduction of Cu oxide clusters at rising temperatures, and pinpoints the specific stoichiometries that dominate in the ensemble of cluster states as the temperature changes.

Zandkarimi, Borna↗
DOE OSTI2022

Plasma-assisted chemical-looping combustion: Mechanistic insights into low temperature methane oxidation with CuO

The low-temperature oxidation of CH 4 by CuO in a coaxial, fixed bed, double dielectric barrier discharge (DBD) reactor was investigated with time-dependent species measurements by an electron-ionization molecular beam mass spectrometer (EI-MBMS). In the experiment, 10% methane carried by noble gasses was flown at 50 sccm through 1 g CuO dispersed in quartz wool both under plasma and non-plasma conditions, while time-dependent gas-phase species profiles were collected. Plasma conditions were explored from 300 to 600 °C while the non-plasma conditions were set from 300 to 900 °C. Mechanistic insights into the oxidation of CH 4 by CuO with plasma discharge at lower temperatures (≤ 600 °C) were obtained by quantifying the fuel oxidation, intermediate species, and CO 2 production in comparison to the non-plasma conditions. Here, we observed significant enhancement of fuel oxidation from the plasma discharge between 400 and 500 °C. The CO 2 production at 500 °C with plasma was greater than that at 700 °C without plasma, reducing fuel oxidation temperature by 200+ °C. During tests, three distinct reaction stages were observed: a gas-phase transport limited stage, a surface reaction limited kinetic stage, and an oxygen ion diffusion limited stage. It was observed that plasma greatly improved the reactivity of the second stage at low temperature. In addition, no carbon deposits were observed on the resultant particles, even under the presence of plasma. M. species such as C 4 H 2 and C 6 H 6 not previously observed or predicted in CuO/CH 4 chemical looping were observed, with some species such as CH 3 OH only becoming detectable as total flowrate was increased from 50 to 1500sccm. A non-plasma reaction pathway for CH 4 based the observed species from the MBMS spectrum and previous predictions from reactive molecular dynamics simulations was created, providing a framework from which more complex plasma CuO mechanisms can be crafted from.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2022

Understanding Mass Transport in Copper Electrolyte-Based Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells

Copper redox shuttles, particularly [Cu(tmby) 2 ] 2+/1+ (tmby = bis(4,4',6,6'-tetramethyl-2,2'-bipyridine)), proved to be among the best electrolytes for dye-sensitized solar cells (DSCs), realizing higher power conversion efficiencies both under full sun and indoor illumination than conventional iodide/triiodide and cobalt electrolytes. Even though [Cu(tmby) 2 ] 2+/1+ renders a relatively higher performance, this metal complex is bulky and is limited by mass transport. Since the regeneration of the dye ground state by Cu I and the reaction of Cu II at the counter electrode are comparatively faster processes, the efficiency of DSC involving Cu I /Cu II electrolytes under relatively high light intensities is largely governed by the diffusion of Cu I /Cu II species. Understanding mass transport in these solar cells will enable further improvements in the performance of such copper-based DSCs. Here in the present study, the role of illumination intensity on the photogenerated current and its relationship to mass transport is evaluated using the best cosensitized dye (D35:XY1) and copper electrolyte ([Cu(tmby) 2 ] 2+/1+ ) combination.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2020

Insights into Copper Sulfide Formation from Cu and S K edge XAS and DFT studies

An understanding of the fundamentals of the reaction between CuO with trace amounts of H 2 S to form CuS products is critical for the optimal utilization of this process in sulfur removal applications. Unfortunately, CuS is a complex material, featuring various Cu 2-x S compounds (with 0 ≤ x ≤ 1), distorted crystal phases, and varying electronic structures and coordination environments of Cu and S ions. In this work, we combine ex situ and in situ X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) at S and Cu K edges, fixed bed sorption experiments, DFT simulations, and other characterization techniques to speciate the CuS products formed at different temperatures (298–383 K) and from CuO sorbents with different crystallite sizes (2.8–40 nm). The results of our analysis identify the formation of a distorted CuS layer at the surface of CuO crystals with disulfide groups with shorter Cu–S bonds and higher delocalization of the positive charge of the Cu center into (S 1– )2. This distorted CuS layer dominates the XAS signal at lower temperatures (298–323 K) and at the initial stages of sulfidation at higher temperatures (353 and 383 K) where conversion is low (<40%). First-principles atomistic simulations confirm the thermodynamic favorability of the formation of surface (S 1– )2 on both CuO (111) and ($\bar{1}11$) surfaces, providing further support for our experimental observations. Furthermore, these simulations reveal that the presence of disulfide bonds stabilized surface hydroxyl groups, leading to lower Gibbs Free Energies of their surface migration.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2024

Towards accurate prediction of configurational disorder properties in materials using graph neural networks

Abstract The prediction of configurational disorder properties, such as configurational entropy and order-disorder phase transition temperature, of compound materials relies on efficient and accurate evaluations of configurational energies. Previous cluster expansion methods are not applicable to configurationally-complex material systems, including those with atomic distortions and long-range orders. In this work, we propose to leverage the versatile expressive capabilities of graph neural networks (GNNs) for efficient evaluations of configurational energies and present a workflow combining attention-based GNNs and Monte Carlo simulations to calculate the disorder properties. Using the dataset of face-centered tetragonal gold copper without and with local atomic distortions as an example, we demonstrate that the proposed data-driven framework enables the prediction of phase transition temperatures close to experimental values. We also elucidate that the variance of the energy deviations among configurations controls the prediction accuracy of disorder properties and can be used as the target loss function when training and selecting the GNN models. The work serves as a fundamental step toward a data-driven paradigm for the accelerated design of configurationally-complex functional material systems.

Chemistry↗
NASA NTRS2005

Heat Transfer and Thermal Stability Research for Advanced Hydrocarbon Fuel Technologies

In recent years there has been increased interest in the development of a new generation of high performance boost rocket engines. These efforts, which will represent a substantial advancement in boost engine technology over that developed for the Space Shuttle Main Engines in the early 1970s, are being pursued both at NASA and the United States Air Force. NASA, under its Space Launch Initiative s Next Generation Launch Technology Program, is investigating the feasibility of developing a highly reliable, long-life, liquid oxygen/kerosene (RP-1) rocket engine for launch vehicles. One of the top technical risks to any engine program employing hydrocarbon fuels is the potential for fuel thermal stability and material compatibility problems to occur under the high-pressure, high-temperature conditions required for regenerative fuel cooling of the engine combustion chamber and nozzle. Decreased heat transfer due to carbon deposits forming on wetted fuel components, corrosion of materials common in engine construction (copper based alloys), and corrosion induced pressure drop increases have all been observed in laboratory tests simulating rocket engine cooling channels. To mitigate these risks, the knowledge of how these fuels behave in high temperature environments must be obtained. Currently, due to the complexity of the physical and chemical process occurring, the only way to accomplish this is empirically. Heated tube testing is a well-established method of experimentally determining the thermal stability and heat transfer characteristics of hydrocarbon fuels. The popularity of this method stems from the low cost incurred in testing when compared to hot fire engine tests, the ability to have greater control over experimental conditions, and the accessibility of the test section, facilitating easy instrumentation. These benefits make heated tube testing the best alternative to hot fire engine testing for thermal stability and heat transfer research. This investigation used the Heated Tube Facility at the NASA Glenn Research Center to perform a thermal stability and heat transfer characterization of RP-1 in an environment simulating that of a high chamber pressure, regenerative cooled rocket engine. The first step in the research was to investigate the carbon deposition process of previous heated tube experiments by performing scanning electron microscopic analysis in conjunction with energy dispersive spectroscopy on the tube sections. This analysis gave insight into the carbon deposition process and the effect that test conditions played in the formation of deleterious coke. Furthermore, several different formations were observed and noted. One other crucial finding of this investigation was that in sulfur containing hydrocarbon fuels, the interaction of the sulfur components with copper based wall materials presented a significant corrosion problem. This problem in many cases was more life limiting than those posed by the carbon deposition process. The results of this microscopic analysis was detailed and presented at the December 2003 JANNAF Air-Breathing Propulsion Meeting as a Materials Compatibility and Thermal Stability Analysis of common Hydrocarbon Fuels (reference 1).

DeWitt, Kenneth↗
DOE OSTI2022

Effect of amine type on acidic toxic gas adsorption at ambient conditions on modified CuBTC

We report two amine-modified copper-based Metal Organic Frameworks (MOF (CuBTC)) of different surface chemical and textural features were synthesized and used as adsorbents of acidic toxic gases (NO 2 and H 2 S) in both moist (71% relative humidity (R.H.)) and dry conditions. The initial and exhausted samples were characterized by nitrogen adsorption, powder X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, thermal gravimetric analysis and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. The addition of melamine prevented full growth of CuBTC crystals and resulted in amorphous-like particles with sizes less than 200 nm. The material was non-porous with a small surface area. When urea was used as an amine source, the resulting particles maintained the overall octahedral shape of the parent CuBTC MOF and the material was more porous than the parent MOF. While the urea-modified CuBTC sample performed well as an NO 2 adsorbent in the presence of moisture, the reactivity of the melamine-modified sample and its physical properties provided a favorable environment for the removal of H 2 S. The incorporation of amines into the MOF structure also resulted in surface defects /open copper sites that favored the removal of toxic gases in dry conditions. The reactivity of the adsorbents with toxic gases was demonstrated by the changes in the adsorbent colors, in texture, and in surface chemistry (organic salts, complexes, sulfides and nitrates were formed).

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
NASA NTRS2000

Vacuum Plasma Spray of CuCrNb Alloy for Advanced Liquid - Fuel Combustion Chambers

The copper-8 atomic percent chromium-4 atomic percent niobium (CuCrNb) alloy was developed by Glenn Research Center (formally Lewis Research Center) as an improved alloy for combustion chamber liners. In comparison to NARloy-Z, the baseline (as in Space Shuttle Main Engine) alloy for such liners, CuCrNb demonstrates mechanical and thermophysical properties equivalent to NARloy-Z, but at temperatures 100 C to 150 C (180 F to 270 F) higher. Anticipated materials related benefits include decreasing the thrust cell liner weight 5% to 20%, increasing the service life at least two fold over current combustion chamber design, and increasing the safety margins available to designers. By adding an oxidation and thermal barrier coating to the liner, the combustion chamber can operate at even higher temperatures. For all these benefits, however, this alloy cannot be formed using conventional casting and forging methods because of the levels of chromium and niobium, which exceed their solubility limit in copper. Until recently, the only forming process that maintains the required microstructure of CrNb intermetallics is powder metallurgy formation of a billet from powder stock, followed by extrusion. This severely limits its usefulness in structural applications, particularly the complex shapes required for combustion chamber liners. Vacuum plasma spray (VPS) has been demonstrated as a method to form structural articles including small combustion chambers from the CuCrNb alloy. In addition, an oxidation and thermal barrier layer can be formed integrally on the hot wall of the liner that improve performance and extend service life. This paper discusses the metallurgy and thermomechanical properties of VPS formed CuCrNb versus the baseline powder metallurgy process, and the manufacturing of small combustion chamber liners at Marshall Space Flight Center using the VPS process. The benefits to advanced propulsion initiatives of using VPS to fabricate combustion chamber liners while maintaining the superior CuCrNb properties are also presented.

Zimmerman, Frank↗
NASA NTRS2003

Vacuum Plasma Spray Forming of Copper Alloy Liners for Regeneratively Cooled Liquid Rocket Combustion Chambers

Vacuum plasma spray (VPS) has been demonstrated as a method to form combustion chambers from copper alloys NARloy-Z and GRCop-84. Vacuum plasma spray forming is of particular interest in the forming of CuCrNb alloys such as GRCop-84, developed by NASA s Glenn Research Center, because the alloy cannot be formed using conventional casting and forging methods. This limitation is related to the levels of chromium and niobium in the alloy, which exceed the solubility limit in copper. Until recently, the only forming process that maintained the required microstructure of CrNb intermetallics was powder metallurgy formation of a billet from powder stock, followed by extrusion. This severely limits its usefulness in structural applications, particularly the complex shapes required for combustion chamber liners. This paper discusses the techniques used to form combustion chambers from CuCrNb and NARloy-Z, which will be used in regeneratively cooled liquid rocket combustion chambers.

Zimmerman, Frank↗
DOE OSTI2020

Residue Specific Characterization of Electrostatics, Conformational Heterogeneity, and Dynamics of Electron Transfer Proteins with Linear and Nonlinear Infrared Spectroscopy. Final Report

The goal of this research project was to further our understanding of biological electron transfer through the development and application of new methods for studying proteins and their complexes with high spatial and temporal detail. The approach was based on incorporation of reporter bonds with distinct vibrational frequencies at specific locations in proteins and their characterization through the interaction of the bonds with pulses of infrared light. The project focused on the proteins plastocyanin (Pc) and cytochrome (cyt) f, two electron transfer partners in photosynthesis. The first thrust of the project was the incorporation of carbon deuterium bonds as non-perturbative probes at a ligand to the copper ion of Pc and their use to detect changes in the bonding due to the number of electrons at the metal and how the bonding changes upon association with cyt f. Toward developing more advanced approaches to characterize proteins, we incorporated a stronger reporter, the cyano group of cyanophenylalanine, at several locations in Pc and measured the frequency dynamics in the absence and presence of cyt f. The acquired data improved the current model for the protein complex. Notably, the data indicated that the majority of the population is involved in a loosely bound complex, providing insight into the nature of the ensembles formed by electron transfer protein complexes that is not available via other approaches. In addition to learning about the protein complex, we made strides toward developing and improving the new experimental approach to study highly dynamic behaviors of proteins.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2025

Advances in understanding vacuum break dynamics in liquid helium-cooled tubes for accelerator beamline applications

Understanding air propagation and condensation following a catastrophic vacuum break in particle accelerator beamlines cooled by liquid helium is essential for ensuring operational safety. This review summarizes experimental and theoretical work conducted in our cryogenics lab to address this issue. Systematic measurements were performed to study nitrogen gas propagation in uniform copper tubes cooled by both normal liquid helium (He I) and superfluid helium (He II). These experiments revealed a nearly exponential deceleration of the gas front, with stronger deceleration observed in He II-cooled tubes. To interpret these results, a one-dimensional (1D) theoretical model was developed, incorporating gas dynamics, heat transfer, and condensation mechanisms. The model successfully reproduced key experimental observations in the uniform tube system. However, recent experiments involving a bulky copper cavity designed to mimic the geometry of a superconducting radiofrequency (SRF) cavity revealed strong anisotropic flow patterns of nitrogen gas within the cavity, highlighting limitations in extrapolating results from simplified tube geometries to real accelerator beamlines. To address these complexities, we outline plans for systematic studies using tubes with multiple bulky cavities and the development of a two-dimensional (2D) model to simulate gas dynamics in these more intricate configurations. As a result, these efforts aim to provide a comprehensive understanding of vacuum breaks in particle accelerators and improve predictive capabilities for their operational safety.

Beamline tube↗
DOE OSTI2026

Fully Additively Manufactured Wetted Foam Capsules for Inertial Confinement Fusion

In the pursuit of realizing reliable clean energy generation via inertial confinement fusion (ICF), wetted foam (WF) capsule targets have long been coveted due to their potential to simplify the target fielding process and suppress hydrodynamic instabilities and material mixing that limit achievable energy output, yet producing and deploying a WF target has proven challenging. Here, in this work, we demonstrate the design, fabrication, metrology, and testing of fully additively manufactured (AM) foam-lined capsules using two-photon polymerization (2PP) for ICF. We successfully fielded an AM polymeric foam capsule with a 3-mm outer diameter, a nominally 15-µm-thick solid outer layer, a 120-µm-thick inner foam layer, and a 250-µm outer diameter copper fill tube on the National Ignition Facility for a polar direct-drive shot, and we showcase deuterium wetting of the capsule foam layer inside an ignition target proofing station. Our exploration showed that 2PP can produce fieldable targets with complex geometries and potentially shorten the design iteration turnaround time and the overall target fabrication time.

Target↗
DOE OSTI2024

Toward a high-fidelity tritium transport modeling for retention and permeation experiments

We report Tritium Migration Analysis Program version 8 (TMAP8), the latest version of TMAP, was developed within the framework of the Multiphysics Object-Oriented Simulation Environment (MOOSE). Created at Idaho National Laboratory (INL), MOOSE is an open-source, dimension-agnostic, fully coupled, and fully implicit multiphysics platform featuring massively parallel computation capabilities. Using TMAP8, tritium transport in a divertor monoblock was analyzed to elucidate the effects of pulsed operation (up to fifty 1,600 s plasma discharge and cool-down cycles) on the tritium in-vessel inventory source term and ex-vessel release term (i.e., tritium retention and permeation) for safety analysis. With its built-in Message Passing Interface capability, TMAP8 can, in under 2 h, simulate tritium transport in three different layered materials (i.e., tungsten, copper, and copper-chromium-zirconium alloy) in 2D geometry, using a single device/computer with 10 cores. The MOOSE-based TMAP8 code can leverage other MOOSE tools developed under the Nuclear Energy Advanced Modeling and Simulation program to perform tritium and thermal transport in complex geometries and multiphysics environments. And via its massively parallel computation, MOOSE will enable the fusion pilot plant designers to conduct high-fidelity multiphysics modeling for the design of the divertor and blanket systems as well as for the safety analysis.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2023

Predictive Modeling of Electrodeposition in a Single Pore Flow-Through Electrode: From Electronucleation to Coating Thickness Uniformity

The emergence of advanced manufacturing methods capable of producing porous three-dimensional structures has expanded the design space for next-generation functional components. The ability to fabricate ordered 3D foams for use in electrocatalysis reactors has increased the need for controlled deposition of catalytic metals onto porous support materials, such as carbon. However, there is a lack of clear design guidelines for electrodeposition onto 3D substrates, due to the geometric complexity and multi-scale nature of the problem. Furthermore, electro-nucleation phenomena are often overlooked in macro-scale models of current distribution during deposition. Here, a graphite flow-through electrode (FTE) is used as a model system for copper deposition within a single pore. Potential distributions and electro-nucleation phenomena are coupled in a continuum level model by incorporating nucleation size and density as a function of overpotential, determined experimentally using in situ atomic force microscopy (AFM). The model predictions are validated by measuring the coating uniformity in the pore using micro-computed X-ray tomography (μCT). A scaling analysis comprising dimensionless parameters such as the Wagner number is presented. The simplified scaling relationship framework can guide the electrodeposition process and electrode design to optimize plating of porous substrates under fluid flow conditions.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗