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NASA NTRS1985

Sulfide and sulfate saturation in hydrous silicate melts

A series of hydrothermal experiments was performed over a wide range of pressures, temperatures, oxygen fugacities, and melt FeO content, in order to examine the effects of physical changes on sulfur solubility in fractionated hydrous silicate melts. On the basis of the experimental results, it is concluded that upper crustal oxidation-reduction reactions and crystal fractionation processes may exert considerable influence on the amount of sulfur contained in magmas erupted at the surface. The application of the experimental results to investigations of volatile transport and volcanic degassing processes on the earth, Venus, and Mars is discussed

Carroll, M. R.↗

NASA NTRS2004

Acquisition of a Gas Chromatograph/Mass Spectrometer System for Laboratory Study of Prebiotic Organic Geochemical Processes on the Early Earth, Mars, and Meteorites

This was a major equipment grant that provided funds ($72K) for purchase of a benchtop gas chromatograph-mass spectrometer (GC-MS) for use in experimental studies of prebiotic organic compounds. An Agilent model 689015973 GC-MS was purchased and installed in the PI's lab in August of 2003. The instrument is now being used for a variety of research projects. The primary use of the instrument is to analyze and quantify organic products of laboratory experiments conducted by the PI. One example is shown, which shows organic products (predominantly n-alkanes) formed during Fischer-Tropsch-type abiotic synthesis under hydrothermal conditions. The analytical capabilities of the GC- MS allowed identification of the numerous organic products of this as well as other laboratory experiments. A key use of the instrument in this research is that the mass spectrometer capabilities allow use of isotopically labeled reactants to trace the progress of reactions and evaluate background contaminants. collaborative projects with other scientists involved in exobiology & astrobiology research (e.g., Mitch Schulte, NASA Ames; Katrina Edwards, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution). For instance, an analysis of membrane lipids of an lithoautotrophic iron-oxidizing bacteria being grown on basalt as a source of metabolic energy, a project where the instrument is being used to evaluate possible biomarker compounds from these organisms is shown. These iron oxidizers are thought to be similar to those living within the ocean crust, and are being investigated as possible analog organisms to those on the early Earth or crust of Mars. The instrument has also been used by an outside investigator (graduate student Brandon Canfeld, Arizona State University) for identification and isotopic characterization of experimental products of abiotic organic synthesis experiments he is conducting with Dr. John Holloway. analysis of quality control samples for other NASA-funded projects. For instance, an analysis of residual hydrocarbon contaminants on the internal surface of the shell of an atmospheric sounding rocket is shown. This analysis was used to help determine the source of the contaminating compounds. In the future, the instrument will continue to be used for quality control analysis in clean rooms and instrument construction facilities within the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics, where the GC-MS is housed.

McCollom, Thomas↗

NASA NTRS2004

Searching for an Acidic Aquifer in the Rio Tinto Basin: First Geobiology Results of MARTE Project

Among the conceivable modern habitats to be explored for searching life on Mars are those potentially developed underground. Subsurface habitats are currently environments that, under certain physicochemical circumstances, have high thermal and hydrochemical stability [1, 2]. In planets like Mars lacking an atmospheric shield, such systems are obviously protected against radiation, which strongly alters the structure of biological macromolecules. Low porosity but fractured aquifers currently emplaced inside ancient volcano/sedimentary and hydrothermal systems act as excellent habitats [3] due to its thermal and geochemical properties. In these aquifers the temperature is controlled by a thermal balance between conduction and advection processes, which are driven by the rock composition, geological structure, water turnover of aquifers and heat generation from geothermal processes or chemical reactions [4]. Moreover, microbial communities based on chemolithotrophy can obtain energy by the oxidation of metallic ores that are currently associated to these environments. Such a community core may sustain a trophic web composed of non-autotrophic forms like heterotrophic bacteria, fungi and protozoa.

Fernandez-Remolar, D. C.↗

DOE OSTI2021

Carbon Fiber Reinforced Epoxy Vitrimer: Robust Mechanical Performance and Facile Hydrothermal Decomposition in Pure Water

Conventional carbon fiber reinforced thermosetting polymers (CFRPs) are neither recyclable nor repairable due to their crosslinked network. The rapid growing CFRP market raises a serious concern of the waste management. In this work, a viable method to develop a readily recyclable CFRP based on epoxy vitrimer is introduced. First, a self-catalytic epoxy prepolymer with built-in hydroxy and tertiary amine groups is designed, which upon reaction with an anhydride formed a catalyst-free epoxy vitrimer. The epoxy prepolymer is synthesized from a diamine and an excess of bisphenol A epoxy resin. The hydroxyls and tertiary amines of the epoxy prepolymer efficiently catalyze both curing and the dynamic transesterification of the crosslinked polymer without the need of a catalyst. Then, the epoxy vitrimer is used as the matrix resin to prepare CFRP. The resulting CFRP exhibited a tensile strength as high as 356 MPa. More interestingly, the matrix of the CFRP is efficiently degraded in pure water at above 160 °C. This is because the built-in tertiary amines catalyze the hydrolysis of the ester bonds of the crosslinked network. The simple method developed in this work provides a framework for the development of recyclable CFRP.

Liu, Tuan↗

DOE OSTI2021

The solubility of thorium in carbonate-bearing solutions at hydrothermal conditions

Thorium mineralization is frequently hosted in carbonate-bearing rocks, and thorium commonly substitutes into the structures of carbonate-bearing minerals that have precipitated from or been modified by hydrothermal fluids. Given this common association, it is reasonable to consider the hypothesis that the presence of carbonate ligands in hydrothermal solutions promotes the transport of Th through the formation of stable aqueous complexes. Our ability to evaluate this hypothesis, however, is hindered by the lack of experimental data for Th-carbonate species at conditions beyond ambient. The low-temperature data indicate that carbonate is a strong complexing agent for Th. In this contribution, we investigate the solubility of Th in carbonate-bearing fluids relevant to natural systems (0.05–0.5 m NaHCO 3 /Na 2 CO 3 ; pH T ~ 7.8–9.8) at elevated temperature (175–250 °C). We demonstrate that, in contrast to the behavior of Th at low temperature, the stability of Th-carbonate complexes is not sufficient for them to predominate at these conditions. Instead, the solubility of Th is governed by hydrolysis reactions. Under the experimental conditions investigated, the predominant hydroxyl complexes are Th(OH) 4 0 and Th(OH) 5 -. Furthermore, thermodynamic formation constants were derived for these species at the temperatures considered in our experiments (log β 4 = 43.34 and 44.31 at 175 and 200 °C, respectively, and log β 5 = 46.15 and 47.9 at 225 and 250 °C, respectively) to permit forward modeling of Th mobility in natural systems. Our study indicates that carbonate ions are unlikely to play a role in transporting Th in hydrothermal fluids. Summarizing the results of this study and our previous studies of the solubility of Th in hydrothermal fluids, we conclude that SO 4 2- is the primary ligand responsible for the hydrothermal transport of Th.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

DOE OSTI2022

Ultrafast Preparation of Nonequilibrium FeNi Spinels by Magnetic Induction Heating for Unprecedented Oxygen Evolution Electrocatalysis

Carbon-supported nanocomposites are attracting particular attention as high-performance, low-cost electrocatalysts for electrochemical water splitting. These are mostly prepared by pyrolysis and hydrothermal procedures that are time-consuming (from hours to days) and typically difficult to produce a nonequilibrium phase. Herein, for the first time ever, we exploit magnetic induction heating-quenching for ultrafast production of carbon-FeNi spinel oxide nanocomposites (within seconds), which exhibit an unprecedentedly high performance towards oxygen evolution reaction (OER), with an ultralow overpotential of only +260 mV to reach the high current density of 100 mA cm -2 . Experimental and theoretical studies show that the rapid heating and quenching process (ca. 10 3 K s -1 ) impedes the Ni and Fe phase segregation and produces a Cl-rich surface, both contributing to the remarkable catalytic activity. Results from this study highlight the unique advantage of ultrafast heating/quenching in the structural engineering of functional nanocomposites to achieve high electrocatalytic performance towards important electrochemical reactions.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

DOE OSTI2022

Competitive effects of glucan’s main hydrolysates on biochar formation: A combined experiment and density functional theory analysis

We report the complexity of polysaccharide hydrothermal products increases the difficulty of exploring the formation of biochar, limiting the development of biochar. This work clarifies the completive effects of glucan’s main hydrolysates on biochar formation from three aspects: experimental, thermodynamic, and kinetic. The products distribution illustrates that 5-HMF, FA, and LA are mainly involved in the formation of biochar. Biochar mainly includes furan ring, ether group, and ester group by the analysis of magic-angle-spinning nuclear magnetic resonance, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and elemental analysis. Combined experiments and density functional theory analysis, the etherification reaction of 5-HMF itself is most likely to occur and is key to form biochar, followed by the esterification of FA with 5-HMF, and then the etherification of 5-HMF and LA. The further verified experiments also manifest these results. This work will develop a foundation for exploring the complex formation mechanism of cellulose-based biochar.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗

NASA NTRS2015

Aqueous Alteration on Mars: Evidence from Landed Missions

Mineralogical and geochemical data returned by orbiters and landers over the past 15 years have substantially enhanced our understanding of the history of aqueous alteration on Mars. Here, we summarize aqueous processes that have been implied from data collected by landed missions. Mars is a basaltic planet. The geochemistry of most materials has not been “extensively” altered by open-system aqueous processes and have average Mars crustal compositions. There are few examples of open-system alteration, such as Gale crater’s Pahrump Hills mudstone. Types of aqueous alteration include (1) acid-sulfate and (2) hydrolytic (circum-neutral/alkaline pH) with varying water-to-rock ratios. Several hypotheses have been suggested for acid-sulfate alteration including (1) oxidative weathering of ultramafic igneous rocks containing sulfides; (2) sulfuric acid weathering of basaltic materials; (3) acid fog weathering of basaltic materials; and (4) near-neutral pH subsurface solutions rich in Fe (sup 2 plus) that rapidly oxidized to Fe (sup 3 plus) producing excess acidity. Meridiani Planum’s sulfate-rich sedimentary deposit containing jarosite is the most “famous” acid-sulfate environment visited on Mars, although ferric sulfate-rich soils are common in Gusev crater’s Columbia Hills and jarosite was recently discovered in the Pahrump Hills. An example of aqueous alteration under circum-neutral pH conditions is the formation of Fe-saponite with magnetite in situ via aqueous alteration of olivine in Gale crater’s Sheepbed mudstone. Circum-neutral pH, hydrothermal conditions were likely required for the formation of Mg-Fe carbonate in the Columbia Hills. Diagenetic features (e.g., spherules, fracture filled veins) indicate multiple episodes of aqueous alteration/diagenesis in most sedimentary deposits. However, low water-to-rock ratios are prominent at most sites visited by landed missions (e.g., limited water for reaction to form crystalline phases possibly resulting in large amounts of short-range ordered materials and little physical separation of primary and secondary materials). Most of the aqueous alteration appears to have occurred early in the planet’s history; however, minor aqueous alteration may be occurring at the surface today (e.g., thin films of water forming carbonates akin to those discovered by Phoenix).

Ming, Douglas W.↗

DOE OSTI2020

Enhancement of high-temperature selectivity on Cu-SSZ-13 towards NH3-SCR reaction from highly dispersed ZrO2

ZrO2 is introduced as a secondary phase to Cu-SSZ-13 via different approaches and tested for the NH3-SCR reaction. It is shown that the vicinity between the two catalyst phases, i.e., ZrO2 dispersion, influences interaction between copper oxide (CuOx) on Cu-SSZ-13 and ZrO2. A strong interaction is achieved when ZrO2 is formed with high dispersion on Cu-SSZ-13, and leads to the chemical interaction of CuOx and ZrO2 in hydrothermally aged catalysts. The result is formation of a Cu-stabilized t-ZrO2 phase which greatly hinders the non-selective NH3 oxidation due to CuOx. With reduced ZrO2 dispersion and less Cu-SSZ-13 and ZrO2 interaction, the beneficial role of ZrO2 is diminished. This strategy of CuOx passivation is able to significantly enhance the high-temperature selectivity of the state-of-the-art NH3-SCR catalytic system while mitigating the adverse impact of CuOx clusters on the zeolite, potentially enabling higher Cu-content SCR catalysts and improved low-temperature activity.

NH3-SCR, ZrO2, selective catalytic reduction, afte↗

DOE OSTI2024

Utah FORGE 5-2565: Evolution of Permeability and Strength Recovery of Shear Fractures Under Hydrothermal Conditions - 2024 Annual Workshop Presentation

This is a presentation on the Evolution of Permeability and Strength Recovery of Shear Fractures Under Hydrothermal Conditions by United States Geological Survey, presented by Tamara Jeppson. This video slide presentation, by the USGS, discusses the determination of how thermal, hydrologic, mechanical, and chemical (THMC) processes affect the sustainability of fracture networks in geothermal reservoirs. This includes (1) the qualification of rates of change of fracture properties, (2) the parameterization of modes of reaction, (3) the development of micromechanical and empirical fracture models, and (4) extended THMC models for laboratory- and reservoir-scale models. This presentation was featured in the Utah FORGE R&D Annual Workshop on August 15, 2024.

15 GEOTHERMAL ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2020

Hydrothermal liquefaction of Cyanidioschyzon merolae and Salicornia bigelovii Torr.: The interaction effect on product distribution and chemistry

Hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL) has proven to be a promising technology for processing wet biomass into valuable biofuel intermediates. We investigated the influence of HTL process parameters on the individual and co-liquefaction of Salicornia bigelovii Torr. (SL) and Cyanidioschyzon merolae (CM) biomass and their respective product properties and characteristics. SL and CM biomasses were subjected to HTL conditions of process temperatures (250–350 °C), 10 wt% solid loading, 30 min reaction time, and co-liquefaction ratios (80–20, 50–50, 20–80, CM-SL, respectively). The individual maximum HTL biocrude yields for CM (34.63 wt%) and SL (7.63 wt%) were obtained at 300 °C. In both cases, biocrude oils had a higher carbon and hydrogen content relative to those of the original biomass. The HHV (higher heating value) values for the biocrude samples ranged from 24.2 to 33.12 MJ/kg, which were significantly higher than those of the original biomasses. A positive synergistic effect was observed during the co-liquefaction of two biomasses, where the experimental yield of biocrude oil was higher than the theoretical value. During the co-liquefaction experiments, a maximum biocrude yield of 32.95 wt% was obtained at 300 °C and 80–20 CM-SL biomass mix ratio. Co-liquefaction led to an increase in the energy content of the co-liquefied biocrude oil and a higher energy recovery rate. Finally, the properties of HTL products and biomasses were determined with TGA, CHN elemental analyzer, GC/MS, bomb calorimeter, HACH Spectrophotometer, and ICP OES.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗

DOE OSTI2022

Growth mechanism of glucose-based hydrochar under the effects of acid and temperature regulation

Improving the tailorability of hydrochar synthesis is an effective way to enhance its performance and utilization efficiency. In this study, the growth rate, morphology, and molecular structure of hydrochar were controlled by regulating the pH and temperature of the hydrothermal carbonization process. Growth process analysis indicates that hydrochar has three growth periods: induction, rapid, and stable growth periods. It is mainly controlled by 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF), which is formed by converting glucose and its transformation products. Further, the regulation of acid can significantly shorten the induction period of hydrochar, even under low-temperature conditions (<180 °C), and increase the growth rate of hydrochar. However, the degree of hydrochar adhesion varies: the lower the temperature, the greater the degree of its adhesion. Molecular structural analysis demonstrates that hydrochar mainly consists of furan structural domains and aromatic clusters, and its surface is rich in oxygen-containing functional groups. The degree at which hydrochar was aromatized was improved by increasing the reaction temperature (160–220 °C); whereas the regulation of acid reduced it and increased the content of oxygen-containing functional groups on the hydrochar surface. Based on these results, it is proposed that hydrochar formation has five stages and three growth periods with or without acid regulation.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2025

Process intensification in hydrothermal liquefaction of biomass: A review

Hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL) presents a promising pathway for converting wet biomass resources into biofuels, offering significant advantages over conventional methods. However, numerous challenges must be addressed for HTL scale-up, including energy provision for the endothermic process, heat and mass transfer limitations, slurry concentration and pumpability challenges, char and coke formation, and continuous phase separation. This review explores key strategies such as autothermal HTL, which improves process efficiency and reduces external energy requirements by coupling exothermic and endothermic reactions within the same reactor, thereby simplifying reactor design and reducing operational costs. Additionally, multistage HTL processes are highlighted for their ability to optimize biocrude quality and yield by fractionating biomass conversion stages, resulting in higher energy returns on investment and better-quality biocrude. Solvothermal HTL and integration techniques for aqueous phase are also discussed. Furthermore, the HTL patent landscape is discussed to provide insights into current technological advancements. This review aims to offer a comprehensive understanding of process intensification in HTL, highlighting innovative solutions to enhance the efficiency and scalability of the process for sustainable biofuel production.

Biocrude oil↗

DOE OSTI2025

Water effects on NH 3 -SCR over Cu-based small-pore zeolite catalysts: A review

The selective catalytic reduction (SCR) of NO x with NH 3 as the reductant over small-pore Cu-zeolite catalysts is a leading strategy for controlling emissions from diesel engines and mobile sources. While the hydrothermal stability of Cu-zeolites such as Cu-SSZ-13, Cu-SAPO-34, and Cu-SSZ-39 has been extensively studied, the multifaceted role of water vapor under operating conditions has only recently received systematic attention. Water impacts multiple aspects of SCR catalysis, including NO x conversion, N 2 O formation, Cu ion speciation, redox kinetics, and surface reactions. This review comprehensively summarizes recent advances in understanding the effect of water on NH 3 -SCR over Cu-based catalysts. For Cu-SSZ-13, water vapor induces both inhibitory and promotive effects depending on temperature, Cu loading, and Si/Al ratio by altering NH 3 adsorption, Cu mobility, and redox half-cycle kinetics. Studies have revealed that water can suppress ammonium nitrate formation at low temperatures and enhance nitrate pathways at higher temperatures. Over Cu-SAPO-34, water promotes NO conversion by improving Cu(II) reducibility and strengthening Brønsted acidity. First-principles calculations confirm that water-coordinated Cu species lower O 2 activation barriers. In Cu-SSZ-39, water was found to facilitate Cu reduction, migration, and O 2 activation, resulting in superior water tolerance and unexpected catalytic promotion. Both experimental and computational studies highlight that water vapor exerts complex, catalyst-dependent effects on NH 3 -SCR performance, underscoring the need for tailored catalyst designs that leverage beneficial water interactions while minimizing inhibitory impacts.

Ammonia selective catalytic reduction↗

NASA NTRS2001

Catalysis in the 3rd Dimension: How Organic Molecules May be Formed

Catalysis is often little more than a word to phenomenologically describe the fact that a reaction follows a pat1 that leads to products of an unexpected kind or of unexpected yield. Low activation energy barriers for intermediates are recognized as the most likely cause why a system deviates from the thermodynamic pull towards minimizing its free energy and ends up in a metastable state. Seldom is the mechanism known. This i: particularly true for heterogeneous catalysis under hydrothermal conditions with minerals as catalysts. It is commonly assumed that catalytic action takes place across solid-fluid interfaces and that, on the atomic level, interfaces are just 2-dimensional contacts. This makes it difficult to understand, for instance, the assembly of long-chain carboxylic (fatty) acids. 3y studying single crystals that grew from a melt in the presence of H2O and CO2, we can show: (1) that numerals take up the fluid components into solid solution, (2) that some-thing happens converting them to -educedH and C, (3) that C atoms segregate into dislocations and tie C-C bonds. The products are medium-to-long chain Cn protomolecules, with some C-H attached, pre-assembled in the dislocations. Upon solvent extraction, these proto-molecules turn into carboxylic and dicarboxylic acids. This observation suggests that, in a very elementary step, catalysis under hydrothermal conditions leading to fatty acids involves the pre-assembly of Cn entities in the interface that is not 2-D but extends into the 3rd dimension, with dislocations as synthesis sites.

Freund, Friedemann↗

DOE OSTI2023

Interplay between copper redox and transfer and support acidity and topology in low temperature NH 3 -SCR

Low-temperature standard NH 3 -SCR over copper-exchanged zeolite catalysts occurs on NH 3 -solvated Cu-ion active sites in a quasi-homogeneous manner. As key kinetically relevant reaction steps, the reaction intermediate Cu II (NH 3 ) 4 ion hydrolyzes to Cu II (OH)(NH 3 ) 3 ion to gain redox activity. The Cu II (OH)(NH 3 ) 3 ion also transfers between neighboring zeolite cages to form highly reactive reaction intermediates. Via operando electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy and SCR kinetic measurements and density functional theory calculations, we demonstrate here that such kinetically relevant steps become energetically more difficult with lower support Brønsted acid strength and density. Consequently, Cu/LTA displays lower Cu atomic efficiency than Cu/CHA and Cu/AEI, which can also be rationalized by considering differences in their support topology. By carrying out hydrothermal aging to eliminate support Brønsted acid sites, both Cu II (NH 3 ) 4 ion hydrolysis and Cu II (OH)(NH 3 ) 3 ion migration are hindered, leading to a marked decrease in Cu atomic efficiency for all catalysts.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

DOE OSTI2023

Dynamic and reversible transformations of subnanometre-sized palladium on ceria for efficient methane removal

Reversibly adjusting the active structures of supported metal catalysts in response to dynamic working conditions has long been pursued. Here we report the reaction-environment-modulated transformations of subnanometre-sized Pd on CeO 2 for efficient methane removal, leveraging the reaction environments at different stages of automotive exhaust aftertreatment. During the cold start of vehicles, inactive Pd 1 single atoms are readily transformed into PdO $x$ subnanometre clusters by CO even at room temperature with excess O 2 , resulting in boosted low-temperature CH 4 oxidation. At elevated temperatures, dispersion of PdO $x$ cluster into Pd 1 against metal sintering renders outstanding hydrothermal stability to the catalyst, to be activated during the next vehicle start. Combined experimental and computational studies elucidate the dynamically evolved Pd speciation on CeO 2 at an atomic level. In conclusion, modulating the reversible nature of supported metals helps overcome the long-existing trade-off between low-temperature activity and high-temperature stability, also providing a new paradigm for designing intelligent catalysts that brings single-atom/cluster catalysts closer to real applications.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

DOE OSTI2025

High Performance Solvent for NGCC Flue Gas CO 2 Capture (Final Technical Report)

Amine-based solvent absorption is the most mature and reliable technology for large scale CO 2 capture, dating back to the 1930s when monoethanolamine (MEA) was used to treat acid gases from oil refineries. However, while strategic advancements have optimized the CO2 capture process, the cost of capture remains high, where current estimates suggest that CO 2 capture costs are around $\$$72/tonne of CO 2 . To address this, solvent development and optimization have become a focus of current research. This project sought to develop a high-performance solvent to reduce the overall cost of CO 2 capture from NGCC flue gas. Here, solvent optimization focused on: (1) reducing the energy required for CO 2 desorption in a reboiler, (2) improving CO 2 absorption and desorption reaction kinetics, (3) improving solvent stability, and (4) reducing environmental impacts. Susteon has developed and evaluated a promoted solvent, Sustenol™, for NGCC flue gas CO 2 capture. The optimized Sustenol™ also shows a higher dynamic CO 2 absorption capacity of ~0.5 mol CO2 /mol amine compared to 0.25 mol CO2 /mol amine for 30 wt% MEA. Additionally, the solvent is oxidatively, thermally and hydrothermally stable, which leads to lower solvent loss and emissions. These advancements have resulted in a solvent regeneration energy of 2.16 GJ/tonne of CO 2 which is >30% lower than current state-of-the-art commercial and emerging solvents. Combined with empirical data from the bench and pilot scale testing, this preliminary TEA study indicated the cost of CO 2 capture by Sustenol™ for 97% CO 2 removal at $\$$54/tonne and for 90% removal at $\$$49/tonne, with a pathway to achieve $\$$45/tonne of CO 2 with continued process and solvent advancements. Susteon has developed a technology roadmap to reduce the cost of CO 2 capture to <$\$$45/tonne for NGCC flue gas. Susteon plans to derisk this technology for commercial deployment through comprehensive solvent degradation testing, long-term testing in a pilot plant at 5 tonne CO2 /day and demonstration scale testing at 100 tonne CO2 /day with NGCC flue gas and engineering design studies to qualify Sustenol™ as a drop-in replacement solvent.

03 NATURAL GAS↗