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NASA NTRS2019

Radiometric Calibration of A Non-Imaging Airborne Spectrometer To Measure the Greenland Ice Sheet Surface

Methods to radiometrically calibrate a non-imaging airborne visible-to-shortwave infrared (VSWIR) spectrometer to measure the Greenland ice sheet surface are presented. Airborne VSWIR measurement performance for bright Greenland ice and dark bare rock/soil targets is compared against the MODerate resolution atmospheric TRANsmission (MODTRAN ® ) radiative transfer code (version 6.0), and a coincident Landsat 8 Operational Land Imager (OLI) acquisition on 29 July 2015 during an in-flight radiometric calibration experiment. Airborne remote sensing flights were carried out in northwestern Greenland in preparation for the Ice, Cloud, and land Elevation Satellite 2 (ICESat-2) laser altimeter mission. A total of nine science flights were conducted over the Greenland ice sheet, sea ice, and open-ocean water. The campaign's primary purpose was to correlate green laser pulse penetration into snow and ice with spectroscopic-derived surface properties. An experimental airborne instrument configuration that included a nadir-viewing (looking downward at the surface) non-imaging Analytical Spectral Devices (ASD) Inc. spectrometer that measured upwelling VSWIR (0.35 to 2.5 µm) spectral radiance (Wm −2 sr −1 µm −1 ) in the two-color Slope Imaging Multi-polarization Photon-Counting Lidar's (SIMPL) ground instantaneous field of view, and a zenith-viewing (looking upward at the sky) ASD spectrometer that measured VSWIR spectral irradiance (W m −2 nm −1 ) was flown. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) traceable radiometric calibration procedures for laboratory, in-flight, and field environments are described in detail to achieve a targeted VSWIR measurement requirement of within 5 % to support calibration/validation efforts and remote sensing algorithm development. Our MODTRAN predictions for the 29 July flight line over dark and bright targets indicate that the airborne nadir-viewing spectrometer spectral radiance measurement uncertainty was between 0.6 % and 4.7 % for VSWIR wavelengths (0.4 to 2.0 µm) with atmospheric transmittance greater than 80 %. MODTRAN predictions for Landsat 8 OLI relative spectral response functions suggest that OLI is measuring 6 % to 16 % more top-of-atmosphere (TOA) spectral radiance from the Greenland ice sheet surface than was predicted using apparent reflectance spectra from the nadir-viewing spectrometer. While more investigation is required to convert airborne VSWIR spectral radiance into atmospherically corrected airborne surface reflectance, it is expected that airborne science flight data products will contribute to spectroscopic determination of Greenland ice sheet surface optical properties to improve understanding of their potential influence on ICESat-2 measurements.

Christopher J. Crawford↗
NASA NTRS2004

Performance Expectations for Future Moderate Resolution Visible and Infrared Space Instruments Based on AIRS and MODIS In-Flight Experience

Lessons learned from the Atmospheric Infrared Sounder (AIRS) and the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) projects highlight areas where further technology development is needed to address future land, ocean and atmospheric measurement needs. Although not established as requirements at this time, it is anticipated that scientists will expect improvements in the areas of spatial, spectral, radiometric, polarimetric, temporal and calibration performance for future sensors. This paper addresses each of these performance areas and provides lessons learned from MODIS and AIRS. We also present expectations in performance of the system based on information from NASA Instrument Incubator Program and industry reports. Tradeoffs are presented vs orbit altitude (LEO, ME0 and GEO) and provide a 'systems' perspective to future measurement concepts.

Infrared↗
NASA NTRS1986

Space infrared telescope facility (SIRTF) focal plane

The Infrared Array Camera (IRAC), Multiband Imaging Photometer (MIP), and the Infrared Spectrometer (IRS) of the Space Infrared Telescope Facility (SIRTF) are described. The configuration and capabilities of the SIRTF are discussed. The small silicon array module, the germanium array module, and bolometer module of MIP, which is designed to provide sensitivity limited only by natural background and telescope emissions over the 3-200 micron spectral range, and allow diffraction limited imaging, super resolution techniques, mapping, and surveying, are examined. The objectives and design of the IRAC, which is constructed for two-dimensional photometry and imaging over a wavelength region from 2-30 microns and to perform extragalactic, galactic and solar system astronomy, are studied. The use of the IRS to study the dynamical and physical phenomena of the universe in the 2.5-200 micron range is analyzed.

Ramos, R.↗
NASA NTRS1993

Earth imaging results from Galileo's second encounter

The recent flyby of the Galileo spacecraft en route to Jupiter contributes a unique perspective to our view of our home planet. Imaging activities conducted during the second Earth encounter provide an important opportunity to assess new methods and approaches on familiar territory. These include unique multispectral observations, low light-level imaging (searches for aurorae, lightning and artificial lights on the nightside) and experiments with multiple exposure times to extend the effective radiometric resolution and dynamic range of the camera system. Galileo imaging data has the potential to make important contributions to terrestrial remote sensing. This is because the particular set of filters included in the Solid State Imaging system are not presently incorporated in any currently operating Earth-orbiting sensor system. The visible/near-infrared bandpasses of the SSI filters are well suited to remote sensing of geological, glaciological, botanical, and meteorological phenomena. Data from this and the previous Earth encounter may provide an extremely valuable reference point in time for comparison with similar data expected from EOS or other systems in the future, contributing directly to our knowledge of global change. The highest resolution imaging (0.2 km/pixel) during the December, 1992 encounter occurred over the central Andes; a five filter mosaic of visible and near infrared bands displays the remarkable spectral heterogeneity of this geologically diverse region. As Galileo departed the Earth, cooperative imaging with the Near Infrared Mapping Spectrometer (NIMS) instrument targeted Antarctica, Australia, and Indonesia at 1.0 to 2.5 km/pixel resolutions in the early morning local times near the terminator. The Antarctic data are of particular interest, potentially allowing ice grain size mapping using the 889 and 968 nm filters and providing an important means of calibrating the technique for application to the Galilean satellites. As the spacecraft receded further, regional scale imaging provided data which, along with data from the previous encounter, will enable the production of global multispectral mosaics of Earth in each of the SSI filters.

Greenberg, R.↗
NASA NTRS2018

Concepts for Next Generation Grating Spectrometer Imaging Atmospheric Sounders from LEO and GEO

Spaceborne infrared atmospheric sounders measure the spectrum of the upwelling radiance in the infrared with ultra-high spectral resolution. The resolution is sufficient to measure absorption features of atmospheric constituents enabling retrieval of atmospheric temperature and water vapor profiles, surface emission and atmospheric constituents. The Atmospheric Infrared Sounder (AIRS) on Aqua launched in May of 2002 was the first hyperspectral infrared sounder designed for this purpose and is still operational today. AIRS has been followed by the Infrared Atmospheric Sounding Interferometer (IASI) on MetOp A and B, and the Cross-track Infrared Sounder (CrIS) on Suomi NPP and JPSS. All instruments are operating well improving weather forecast and providing a wealth of information about the atmosphere. Additional CrIS and IASI instruments are expected to be launched providing data of this type into the late 2030’s. AIRS, CrIS and IASI are all Low Earth Orbit (LEO) instruments with nominal spatial resolutions of 14km. Future IR sounders must achieve higher spatial and temporal resolution to match improvements in forecast models and be less costly to match anticipated future budget pressures. Higher temporal resolution can be achieved in several ways including operation in Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO) or in constellations of SmallSats and CubeSats. Higher spatial resolution can be achieved using larger format focal plane assemblies in the instruments and larger aperture telescopes. Grating spectrometers are well suited to large format FPAs by allowing a wide field of view in a compact package. Concepts for next generation grating spectrometer IR sounders that have been developed over the years at JPL are presented along with technology advancements made to enable these concepts to achieve their stated goals.

Pagano, Thomas S.↗
NASA NTRS1989

High resolution imaging of the Venus night side using a Rockwell 128x128 HgCdTe array

The University of Hawaii operates an infrared camera with a 128x128 HgCdTe detector array on loan from JPL's High Resolution Imaging Spectrometer (HIRIS) project. The characteristics of this camera system are discussed. The infrared camera was used to obtain images of the night side of Venus prior to and after inferior conjunction in 1988. The images confirm Allen and Crawford's (1984) discovery of bright features on the dark hemisphere of Venus visible in the H and K bands. Our images of these features are the best obtained to date. Researchers derive a pseudo rotation period of 6.5 days for these features and 1.74 microns brightness temperatures between 425 K and 480 K. The features are produced by nonuniform absorption in the middle cloud layer (47 to 57 Km altitude) of thermal radiation from the lower Venus atmosphere (20 to 30 Km altitude). A more detailed analysis of the data is in progress.

Hodapp, K.-W.↗
NASA NTRS2018

Organic Ices in Titan’s Stratosphere

Titan’s stratospheric ice clouds are by far the most complex of any observed in the solar system, with over a dozen organic vapors condensing out to form a suite of pure and co-condensed ices, typically observed at high winter polar latitudes. Once these stratospheric ices are formed, they will diffuse throughout Titan’s lower atmosphere and most will eventually precipitate to the surface, where they are expected to contribute to Titan’s regolith. Early and important contributions were first made by the InfraRed Interferometer Spectrometer (IRIS) on Voyager 1, followed by notable contributions from IRIS’ successor, the Cassini Composite InfraRed Spectrometer (CIRS), and to a lesser extent, from Cassini’s Visible and Infrared Mapping Spectrometer (VIMS) and the Imaging Science Subsystem (ISS) instruments. All three remote sensing instruments made new ice cloud discoveries, combined with monitoring the seasonal behaviors and time evolution throughout Cassini’s 13-year mission tenure. A significant advance by CIRS was the realization that co-condensing chemical compounds can account for many of the CIRS-observed stratospheric ice cloud spectral features, especially for some that were previously puzzling, even though some of the observed spectral features are still not well understood. Relevant laboratory transmission spectroscopy efforts began just after the Voyager encounters, and have accelerated in the last few years due to new experimental efforts aimed at simulating co-condensed ices in Titan’s stratosphere. This review details the current state of knowledge regarding the organic ice clouds in Titan’s stratosphere, with perspectives from both an observational and experimental standpoint.

Ices↗
NASA NTRS2008

2003 Mars Exploration Rover Mission: Robotic Field Geologists for a Mars Sample Return Mission

The Mars Exploration Rover (MER) Spirit landed in Gusev crater on Jan. 4, 2004 and the rover Opportunity arrived on the plains of Meridiani Planum on Jan. 25, 2004. The rovers continue to return new discoveries after 4 continuous Earth years of operations on the surface of the red planet. Spirit has successfully traversed 7.5 km over the Gusev crater plains, ascended to the top of Husband Hill, and entered into the Inner Basin of the Columbia Hills. Opportunity has traveled nearly 12 km over flat plains of Meridiani and descended into several impact craters. Spirit and Opportunity carry an integrated suite of scientific instruments and tools called the Athena science payload. The Athena science payload consists of the 1) Panoramic Camera (Pancam) that provides high-resolution, color stereo imaging, 2) Miniature Thermal Emission Spectrometer (Mini-TES) that provides spectral cubes at mid-infrared wavelengths, 3) Microscopic Imager (MI) for close-up imaging, 4) Alpha Particle X-Ray Spectrometer (APXS) for elemental chemistry, 5) Moessbauer Spectrometer (MB) for the mineralogy of Fe-bearing materials, 6) Rock Abrasion Tool (RAT) for removing dusty and weathered surfaces and exposing fresh rock underneath, and 7) Magnetic Properties Experiment that allow the instruments to study the composition of magnetic martian materials [1]. The primary objective of the Athena science investigation is to explore two sites on the martian surface where water may once have been present, and to assess past environmental conditions at those sites and their suitability for life. The Athena science instruments have made numerous scientific discoveries over the 4 plus years of operations. The objectives of this paper are to 1) describe the major scientific discoveries of the MER robotic field geologists and 2) briefly summarize what major outstanding questions were not answered by MER that might be addressed by returning samples to our laboratories on Earth.

Ming, Douglas W.↗
NASA NTRS2000

NASA Participation in the ISAS MUSES C Asteroid Sample Return Mission

NASA and Japan's Institute of Space and Astronautical Science (ISAS) have agreed to cooperate on the first mission to collect samples from the surface of an asteroid and return them to Earth for in-depth study. The MUSES-C mission will be launched on a Japanese MV launch vehicle in January 2002 from Kagoshima Space Center, Japan, toward a touchdown on the asteroid Nereus in September 2003. A NASA-provided miniature rover will conduct in-situ measurements on the surface. The asteroid samples will be returned to Earth by MUSES-C via a parachute-borne recovery capsule in January 2006. NASA and ISAS will cooperate on several aspects of the mission, including mission support and scientific analysis. In addition to providing the rover, NASA will arrange for the testing of the MUSES-C re-entry heat shield at NASA/Ames Research Center, provide supplemental Deep Space Network tracking of the spacecraft, assist in navigating the spacecraft and provide arrangements for the recovery of the sample capsule at a landing site in the U. S. Scientific coinvestigators from the U.S. and Japan will share data from the instruments on the rover and the spacecraft. They will also collaborate on the investigations of the returned samples. With a mass of about I kg, the rover experiment will be a direct descendant of the technology used to build the Sojourner rover. The rover will carry three science instruments: a visible imaging camera, a near-infrared point spectrometer and an alpha X ray spectrometer. The solarpowered rover will move around the surface of Nereus collecting imagery data which are complimentary to the spacecraft investigation. The imaging system will be capable of making surface texture, composition, and morphology measurements at resolutions better than 1 cm. The rover will transmit this data to the spacecraft for relay back to Earth. Due to the microgravity environment on Nereus, the rover has been designed to right itself in case it flips over. Solar panels on all sides of the rover will ensure that enough power will always be available to the rover to activate the motors needed to turn over. Posable struts will allow the rover to position its chassis such that the camera can be pointed straight down at the surface or straight up at the sky. The presentation will describe the mission, scientific objectives and current state of the rover in detail.

Jones, Ross↗
NASA NTRS1981

An imaging spectrometric observatory

Measurement of the airglow spectrum from the extreme ultraviolet to the infrared using five identical imaging scanning spectrometers is planned. Functions and operation of the instrument are described.

Torr, M. R.↗
NASA NTRS1993

Geologic mapping using integrated AIRSAR, AVIRIS, and TIMS data

The multi-sensor aircraft campaign called the 'Geologic Remote Sensing Field Experiment' (GRSFE), conducted during 1989 in the southwestern United States, collected multiple airborne remote sensing data sets and associated field and laboratory measurements. The GRSFE airborne data sets used in this study include the airborne Synthetic Aperture Radar (AIRSAR), the Airborne Visible/Infrared Imaging Spectrometer (AVIRIS), and the Thermal Infrared Multispectral Scanner (TIMS). Each sensor's unique characteristics were used for this study in a combined analysis scheme for geologic mapping. AIRSAR was used to map structures and landforms, AVIRIS was used to map mineralogy, and TIMS was used to map lithology. Visual data integration using IHS transforms and combined numerical analysis using derived geophysical and geologic parameters with 'multispectral' techniques resulted in improved geologic mapping over that possible using each data set individually.

Kruse, Fred A.↗
NASA NTRS1999

KWIC: A Widefield Mid-Infrared Array Camera/Spectrometer for the KAO

The Kuiper Widefield Infrared Camera (KWIC) is an imaging spectrometer designed for use on the Kuiper Airborne Observator between 18 and 40 microns. The spectral resolution achieving devices are two fully tunable and scanning cryogenic Fabry-Perot interferometers that employ free standing metal mesh as the reflective surfaces. The detective device is a 128 x 128 pixel Si:Sb BIB array manufactured by Rockwell/Boeing for the SIRTF project. The plate scale for KWIC (one pixel subtends 2.73" x 2.73") was chosen so as to more than fully sample the KAO beam (approximately 9" at 31.5 microns), to enable effective image restoration techniques to be applied. Even so, KWIC has a rather large (5.8' x 5.8') field of view. KWIC has both high and low spectral resolution modes that are interchangeable in a few minutes time in flight on the KAO. The high resolution (R = lambda/(delta)lambda = 1000 to 6000) mode is suitable for detecting weak lines in the presence of strong continuum for Galactic sources, and for resolving broad extragalactic lines. The low resolution (R approximately 30 to 100) mode is suitable for imaging in the thermal dust continuum.

Stacey, Gordon J.↗
NASA NTRS1999

The Mars 2001 Athena Precursor Experiment (APEX)

The Athena Precursor Experiment (APEX) is a suite of scientific instruments for the Mars Surveyor Program 2001 (MSP'01) lander. The major elements of the APEX pay load are: (1) Pancam/Mini-TES, a combined stereo color imager and mid-infrared point spectrometer. (2) An Alpha-Proton-X-Ray Spectrometer (APXS) for in-situ elemental analysis. (3) A Mossbauer Spectrometer for in-situ determination of the mineralogy of Fe-bearing rocks and soils. (4) A Magnet Array that can separate magnetic soil particles from non-magnetic ones.

Squyres, S. W.↗
NASA NTRS2003

Development and Testing of Laser-induced Breakdown Spectroscopy for the Mars Rover Program: Elemental Analyses at Stand-Off Distances

One of the most fundamental pieces of information about any planetary body is the elemental composition of its surface materials. The Viking Martian landers employed XRF (x-ray fluorescence) and the MER rovers are carrying APXS (alpha-proton x-ray spectrometer) instruments upgraded from that used on the Pathfinder rover to supply elemental composition information for soils and rocks to which direct contact is possible. These in- situ analyses require that the lander or rover be in contact with the sample. In addition to in-situ instrumentation, the present generation of rovers carry instruments that operate at stand-off distances. The Mini-TES is an example of a stand-off instrument on the MER rovers. Other examples for future missions include infrared point spectrometers and microscopic-imagers that can operate at a distance. The main advantage of such types of analyses is obvious: the sensing element does not need to be in contact or even adjacent to the target sample. This opens up new sensing capabilities. For example, targets that cannot be reached by a rover due to impassable terrain or targets positioned on a cliff face can now be accessed using stand-off analysis. In addition, the duty cycle of stand-off analysis can be much greater than that provided by in-situ measurements because the stand-off analysis probe can be aimed rapidly at different features of interest eliminating the need for the rover to actually move to the target. Over the past five years we have been developing a stand-off method of elemental analysis based on atomic emission spectroscopy called laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS). A laser-produced spark vaporizes and excites the target material, the elements of which emit at characteristic wavelengths. Using this method, material can be analyzed from within a radius of several tens of meters from the instrument platform. A relatively large area can therefore be sampled from a simple lander without requiring a rover or sampling arms. The placement of such an instrument on a rover would allow the sampling of locations distant from the landing site. Here we give a description of the LIBS method and its advantages. We discuss recent work on determining its characteristics for Mars exploration, including accuracy, detection limits, and suitability for determining the presence of water ice and hydrated minerals. We also give a description of prototype instruments we have tested in field settings.

D A Cremers↗
NASA NTRS2004

An Investigation of the Correlation of Water-Ice and Dust Retrievals Via the MGS TES Data Set

Water-ice in the Martian atmosphere was first identified in the Mariner 9 Infrared Interferometer Spectrometer (IRIS) spectra. The Viking Imaging Subsystem (VIS) instruments aboard the Viking orbiter also observed water-ice clouds and hazes in the Martian atmosphere. The MGS TES instrument is an infrared inferometer/spectrometer which covers the spectral range 6-50 micron with a selectable sampling resolution of either 5 or 10 per cm. Using the relatively independent and distinct spectral signatures for dust and water-ice, these two retrieved quantities have been retrieved simultaneously. Although the interrelations among the two quantities have been analyzed by Smith et al. and the retrievals are thought to be robust, understanding the impact of each quantity on the other during their retrievals as well as the impact from the surface for retrievals is important for correctly interpreting the science, and therefore requires close examination. An understanding of the correlation or a-correlation between dust and water-ice would aid in understanding the physical processes responsible for the transport of aerosols in the Martian atmosphere. In this presentation, we present an investigation of the correlation between water-ice and dust in the MGS TES data set.

Qu, Z.↗
NASA NTRS2005

Cassini VIMS at Saturn: The First 6 Months

The Cassini Visual and Infrared Mapping Spectrometer (VIMS) is an imaging spectrometer on the Cassini spacecraft that covers the spectral range of 0.35 - 5.2 m in 352 spectral channels, a nominal instantaneous field of view of 0.5 mrad and an image format of 64 x 64 pixels. It has completed it s first 6 months in orbit around Saturn. During that time it has made extensive observations of Saturn s rings, it s icy satellites, in particular Phoeba and Iapetus, and had 1 distant and 2 close flybys of Titan.

Brown, R. H.↗
NASA NTRS1999

A Search for Companions to Nearby Brown Dwarfs: The Binary DENIS-P J1228.2-1547

Hubble Space Telescope near infrared camera and multiobject spectrometer (NICMOS) imaging observations of two nearby young brown dwarfs, DENIS-P J1228.2-1547 and Kelu 1, show that the DENIS object is resolved into two components of nearly equal brightness with a projected separation of 0.275 arcsec.

brown dwarfs substellar companions↗