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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 235 records · Page 13
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2022

Seamlessly Fuel Flexible Heat Pump with Optimal Model-based Control Strategies to Reduce Peak Demand, Utility Cost and CO2 Emission

This research develops a novel hybrid fuel heat pump system for space heating of residential and small commercial buildings with built-in optimization and control. Whereas conventional dual fuel systems either run on gas or electricity at any given moment, the proposed seamlessly fuel flexible heat pump (SFFHP) simultaneously consumes gas and electricity and continuously optimizes the proportion of each. The building air flows across the heat pump condenser first and then flows across the furnace coil, and this reduces the heat pump temperature lift. The SFFHP delivers energy savings by allowing each subsystem (gas furnace and electric heat pump) to operate where it performs best to improve energy efficiency, minimize energy cost, and minimize carbon footprint. The capacities of the electric heat pump and gas furnace are continuously adjusted based on ambient conditions, utility price signals, and marginal grid emission signals. An optimal model predictive control strategy was developed with the goal of minimizing utility cost and minimizing CO2 emission. Two case studies were conducted to simulate the performance of SFFHP during the heating season in Chicago and Los Angeles, respectively. Compared with a conventional electric heat pump, SFFHP yields 33% utility cost reduction and 49% CO2 emission reduction in Chicago. Similarly, it achieves 23% utility cost reduction and 17% CO2 emission reduction in Los Angeles. Case studies demonstrate that SFFHP can deliver significant reductions in peak demand, utility cost, and CO2 emission. Due to the hybrid fuel nature of this novel equipment, user comfort will always be maintained. The fuel flexibility makes it an attractive option for demand response programs.

Li, Zhenning↗
DOE OSTI2024

Copper-Doped Tin Oxides Supported on Mesoporous Carbon Xerogel for Boosting the Electrochemical Reduction of CO 2 to Formate in Bicarbonate Solution Coupled with CO 2

The electrochemical reduction of CO 2 into valuable products at mild reaction conditions and using cheap renewable electrical energy are goals to sustain a low-carbon economy. Among the various CO 2 reduction reaction products, formic acid (FA) has received significant attention because of its low Gibbs free energy input requirement and the simple reduction reaction involving the transfer of 2 electrons and 2 protons. In this work, a copper-doped tin oxide catalyst supported on a mesoporous carbon xerogel was shown to enhance the electrochemical reduction of CO 2 to formate in a bicarbonate solution coupled with CO 2 . We observed that the synergistic SnCu oxides enhance the selectivity toward formate from 58.6% for Sn oxide and 28.7% for Cu oxide to over 71.2% for the SnCu oxides. The observed rate of formate production with SnCu oxide was 2.8 times higher compared to the rate of Cu oxide and about 1.5 times higher than with the Sn oxide catalyst. Our results reveal that selectivity for formate comes partly from the electrolysis of the bicarbonate solution and partly from continuous CO 2 gas purged into the solution. The contribution from the electrolysis of bicarbonate solution ranges from 15% to 40% when the concentration of bicarbonate solution ranges from 100 mM to 1 M. Chronoamperometric measurements for stability revealed that Cu oxide and Sn oxide showed stable current density for less than 30 h while under the same conditions, the stable current density was observed for more than 50 h with SnCu oxide catalyst. Additionally, the selectivity toward formate increased by 6% when the reactor pressure was increased from near ambient pressure to 4 psig. Our lab-scale electrochemical cell with SnCu oxide supported on the mesoporous carbon xerogel enhances the CO 2 solubility, minimizes the precipitation of salts that can degrade the catalytic performance, and suppresses the competitive hydrogen evolution reaction, demonstrating the feasibility of using our catalyst and system for the electrochemical conversion of CO 2 into formate with high selectivity, productivity, and stability. Furthermore, this could have significant implications for the mitigation of CO 2 emissions and the development of a sustainable chemical industry.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
NASA NTRS2007

Concurrent CO2 Control and O2 Generation for Advanced Life Support

The electrochemical reduction of carbon dioxide (CO2) using ceramic oxygen generators (COGs) is well known and widely studied, however, conventional devices using yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ) electrolytes operate at temperatures greater than 700 C. Operating at such high temperatures increases system mass compared to lower temperature systems because of increased energy overhead to get the COG up to operating temperature and the need for heavier insulation and/or heat exchangers to reduce the COG oxygen (O2) output temperature for comfortable inhalation. Recently, the University of Florida developed novel ceramic oxygen generators employing a bilayer electrolyte of gadolinia-doped ceria and erbia-stabilized bismuth for NASA's future exploration of Mars. To reduce landed mass and operation expenditures during the mission, in-situ resource utilization was proposed using these COGs to obtain both lifesupporting oxygen and oxidant/propellant fuel, by converting CO2 from the Mars atmosphere. The results showed that oxygen could be reliably produced from CO2 at temperatures as low as 400 C. These results indicate that this technology could be adapted to CO2 removal from a spacesuit and other applications in which CO2 removal was an issue. The strategy proposed for CO2 removal for advanced life support systems employs a catalytic layer combined with a COG so that it is reduced all the way to solid carbon and oxygen. Hence, a three-phased approach was used for the development of a viable low weight COG for CO2 removal. First, to reduce the COG operating temperature a high oxide ion conductivity electrolyte was developed. Second, to promote full CO2 reduction while avoiding the problem of carbon deposition on the COG cathode, novel cathodes and a removable catalytic carbon deposition layer were designed. Third, to improve efficiency, a pre-stage for CO2 absorption was used to concentrate CO2 from the exhalate before sending it to the COG. These subsystems were then integrated into a single CO2 removal system. This paper describes our progress to date on these tasks.

Paul, Heather L.↗
DOE OSTI2026

Cost-effective valorization of 2,3-butanediol to high-value chemicals and jet fuel

Here, this work outlines an optimized process for converting 2,3-butanediol (BDO) into sustainable aviation fuel (SAF) and C4 chemicals. BDO is reactively separated from fermentation broth by forming dioxolanes, which are converted to isobutyraldehyde, methyl ethyl ketone (MEK), and 1,3-butadiene. These intermediates are reduced and dehydrated over Cu/ZSM-5 to form alkenes, which can be oligomerized and hydrotreated to jet-range alkanes. Previous BDO-dioxolane-alkene processes are limited by the requirement for a continuous aldehyde source for dioxolane formation. Brønsted acidic zeolites catalyze dioxolane deacetalization to form isobutyraldehyde and MEK in a >2:1 molar ratio, providing an internal, recyclable aldehyde source. Dioxolane formation optimization was performed to achieve >95% dioxolane yields over Amberlyst-15 and minimize isobutyraldehyde recycle. The overall BDO-dioxolane-fuel process yields an alkane mixture that enables at least a 50% v/v blend with Jet-A. Techno-economic analyses and life cycle assessments for this BDO-dioxolane-fuel process yield scenarios with <$2.50 per gallon gas equivalent and >58% reduction in CO2 emissions.

2,3-butanediol↗
NASA NTRS1994

Iron and manganese in anaerobic respiration: environmental significance, physiology, and regulation

Dissimilatory iron and/or manganese reduction is known to occur in several organisms, including anaerobic sulfur-reducing organisms such as Geobacter metallireducens or Desulfuromonas acetoxidans, and facultative aerobes such as Shewanella putrefaciens. These bacteria couple both carbon oxidation and growth to the reduction of these metals, and inhibitor and competition experiments suggest that Mn(IV) and Fe(III) are efficient electron acceptors similar to nitrate in redox abilities and capable of out-competing electron acceptors of lower potential, such as sulfate (sulfate reduction) or CO2 (methanogenesis). Field studies of iron and/or manganese reduction suggest that organisms with such metabolic abilities play important roles in coupling the oxidation of organic carbon to metal reduction under anaerobic conditions. Because both iron and manganese oxides are solids or colloids, they tend to settle downward in aquatic environments, providing a physical mechanism for the movement of oxidizing potential into anoxic zones. The resulting biogeochemical metal cycles have a strong impact on many other elements including carbon, sulfur, phosphorous, and trace metals.

Review, Academic↗
DOE OSTI2026

Host analysis-guided selection and targeted engineering (HASTE) of Lipomyces tetrasporus for the conversion of CO2-derived feedstocks

Efficient and cost-competitive bioproduction calls for utilizing CO2-derived feedstocks, such as products from electro-reduction of CO2 and hydrolysate from lignocellulosic biomass. However, efficiently using all their carbon components, including acetate, glucose, and xylose, remains a challenge. Here, we characterize Lipomyces tetrasporus, a novel, robust yeast strain capable of effectively assimilating these carbon sources. We used an integrated systems biology approach combining ¹³C metabolic flux analysis, dynamic labeling experiments, and RNA sequencing. We conducted the first metabolic flux analysis for glucose, xylose, and acetate catabolism in this species. Dynamic labeling revealed a highly active TCA cycle during acetate metabolism, evidenced by rapid citrate and malate accumulation. The strain demonstrated strong NADH/NADPH production and acetyl-CoA synthase activity. Using insights and gene targets from this analysis, we engineered L. tetrasporus for malate production. The engineered strain produced 7.5 g/L malic acid (0.25 g/g yield) in shake flasks with glucose-acetate media and 28.8 g/L malic acid at a yield of 0.20 g/g in fed-batch mode with corn-stover hydrolysate. Together, these insights and rational strain engineering establish L. tetrasporus as a versatile, Crabtree-negative platform that is an energy-CO2-bioproduction nexus for channeling CO2 carbon into value-added bioproducts.

Xiao, Zhengyang↗
DOE OSTI2022

Hybrid Heat Pump Controls: Conventional Dual Fuel versus Seamlessly Fuel Flexible Heat Pump

This paper compares the performance of a novel seamlessly fuel flexible heat pump (SFFHP) and conventional dual fuel heat pump (DFHP) for space heating. The conventional dual fuel systems either run on the gas furnace or electric heat pump at any given moment, as a comparison, the proposed seamlessly fuel flexible heat pump simultaneously consumes gas and electricity by continuously optimizing the proportion of each. The process air flows across the heat pump condenser first and then flows across the furnace coil, therefore, the heat pump temperature lift is reduced. SFFHP delivers energy savings by allowing each subsystem, i.e., gas furnace and electric heat pump, to operate where it performs best.For DFHP, two operation control strategies, i.e., non-restricted control and restricted control, are available on market. For the non-restricted mode, the thermostat has a switching temperature-programmed according to the balancing point of heating load and capacity curve. Heat pump operates above the switching temperature, while the furnace takes over under the switching temperature. For the restricted control, the compressor of a heat pump is disabled below a predefined lockout outdoor temperature to let the furnace take over. For SFFHP, a model predictive control strategy is developed to continuously adjust the capacities of the electric heat pump and gas furnace based on the foreseen weather data, utility price signals, and marginal grid emission signals with the goal of minimizing the utility cost and CO2 emission while guaranteeing comfort requirements.In this paper, DFHP and SFFHP are simulated using high-fidelity heat pump performance curves generated from DOE/ORNL heat pump design model. Performance comparison of DFHP and SFFHP during 2019-2020 heating season in Los Angeles shows that SFFHP with model predictive control achieves 23% utility cost reduction and 17 % CO2 emission reduction. Case studies demonstrate that SFFHP can deliver significant reductions in peak demand, utility cost, and CO2 emission. As a result, SFFHP can deliver superior benefits for utility cost reduction and CO2 emission reduction over conventional dual fuel heat pump.

Li, Zhenning↗
NASA NTRS1991

Chemical approaches to carbon dioxide utilization for manned Mars missions

Use of resources available in situ is a critical enabling technology for a permanent human presence in space. A permanent presence on Mars, e.g., requires a large infrastructure to sustain life under hostile conditions. As a resource on Mars, atmospheric CO2 is as follows: abundant; available at all points on the surface; of known presence; chemically simple; and can be obtained by simple compression. Many studies focus on obtaining O2 and the various uses for O2 including life support and fuel; discussion of CO, the coproduct from CO2 fixation revolves around its uses as a fuel, being oxidized back to CO2. Several new proposals are studied for CO2 fixation through chemical, photochemical, and photoelectrochemical means. For example, the reduction of CO2 to hydrocarbons such as acetylene (C2H2) can be accomplished with H2. C2H2 has a theoretical vacuum specific impulse of approx. 375 secs. Potential uses were also studied of CO2, as obtained or further reduced to carbon, as a reducing agent in metal oxide processing to form metals or metal carbides for use as structural or power materials; the CO2 can be recycled to generate O2 and CO.

Hepp, Aloysius F.↗
NASA NTRS1991

In-situ carbon dioxide fixation on Mars

The authors examine several novel proposals for CO2 fixation through chemical, photochemical, and photoelectrochemical means. For example, the reduction of CO2 to hydrocarbons such as acetylene (C2H2) can be accomplished with hydrogen. Acetylene has a theoretical vacuum specific impulse of about 375 s. The authors also examine potential uses of CO, as obtained or further reduced to carbon, as a reducing agent in metal oxide processing to form metals or metal carbides for use as structural or power materials. The CO2 can be recycled to generate O2 and CO. In this study, the authors examine reaction schemes for processing in situ resources. The authors highlight chemistry with hydrogen and carbon monoxide to produce propellants and other necessities of manned exploration.

Hepp, Aloysius F.↗
DOE OSTI2024

Simulation & Analysis of the Hydronic Shell Retrofit System as a Solution for Deep Energy Retrofits and Electrification of Large Multifamily Housing Communities in Cold Climate

Among 32 million multi-family buildings in the United States, approximately 42% have poor or no insulation. Envelope retrofits of these buildings will provide thermal resiliency and enable a pathway to electrification of space heating systems as a result of improved thermal performance. Hydronic Shell (HS) is a technology which combines an insulated retrofit panel with a heating, ventilation and air-conditioning (HVAC) thus enabling both envelope retrofit and space heating electrification. In this study, we used whole building energy simulation to evaluate energy impact of multi-family building retrofit with hydronic shell system. The simulation was performed for four locations of New York, Syracuse, Chicago and Boston. The results from the simulation showed more than 66% cooling energy reduction and more than 88% heating energy reduction from Hydronic Shell retrofit compared to Baseline building in all four locations. This reduction in energy consumption resulted in up to 219 MT reduction in annual CO2 emission. The cost reduction per floor area achieved from HVAC energy consumption reduction using Hydronic Shell retrofit was 0.66 to 0.99 $\$$/ft 2 . The results also showed higher percentage of heating energy reduction comes from the envelope only retrofit and higher percentage of cooling energy reduction comes from the retrofit HVAC system for the four locations under study.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗
NASA NTRS1992

The feasibility of processes for the production of oxygen on the moon

An evaluation of the perceived feasibility of 20 different processs for the production of oxygen on the moon is presented. Many of them are largely untested and/or extremely complicated and difficult to implement. Simplicity, low energy, easily attainable feedstock, and resupply mass are the principal criteria for the processes that will ultimately be selected for the initial production of oxygen on the moon. An evaluation of the 20 processes resulted in a ranking according to overall feasibility. The eight processes considered to be the most likely candidates, at this time, for oxygen production on the moon are: ilmenite reduction of H2, CO2, and CH4; glass reduction with H2; molten silicate electrolysis; fluxed molten silicate electrolysis; vapor pyrolysis; and ion plasma pyrolysis.

Taylor, Lawrence A.↗
NASA NTRS2002

Overview of NASA's UEET Program

This paper presents a general overview of NASA's Ultra Efficient Engine Technology (UEET) Program. The program's vision is to develop and hand off revolutionary turbine engine propulsion technologies that will enable future generation vehicles over a wide range of flight speeds. The specific goals include: 1) Perform propulsion technologies to enable increases in system efficiency and, therefore, fuel burn reductions of up to 15% (equivalent reductions in CO2); and 2) Provide combustor technologies (configuration and materials) which will enable reductions in Landing/Take-off (LTO) NOx of 70% relative to 1996 ICAO standards.

Shaw, Robert J.↗
NASA NTRS1999

CO2 Compressor Requirements for Integration of Space Station Carbon Dioxide Removal and Carbon Dioxide Reduction Assemblies

This paper describes the analysis on integration requirements, CO2 compressor in particular, for integration of Carbon Dioxide Removal Assembly (CDRA) and CO2 Reduction Assembly (CRA) as a part of the Node 3 project previously conducted at JSC/NASA. A system analysis on the volume and operation pressure range of the CO2 accumulator was conducted. The hardware and operational configurations of the CO2 compressor were developed. The performance and interface requirements of the compressor were specified. An existing Four-Bed Molecular Sieve CO2 removal computer model was modified into a CDRA model and used in analyzing the requirements of the CDRA CO2 compressor. This CDRA model was also used in analyzing CDRA operation parameters that dictate CO2 pump sizing. Strategy for the pump activation was also analyzed.

Jeng, Frank F.↗
NASA NTRS1972

Computer program of data reduction procedures for facilities using CO2-N2-O2-Ar equilibrium real-gas mixtures

Data reduction procedures for determining free-stream and post-normal-shock flow conditions are presented. These procedures are applicable to flows of CO2, N2, O2, Ar, or mixtures of these gases and include the effects of dissociation and ionization. The assumption of thermochemical equilibrium free-stream and post-normal-shock flow is made. Although derived primarily to meet the immediate needs of an expansion tube of a hot gas radiation research facility, these procedures are applicable to any supersonic or hypersonic test facility using these gases or mixtures thereof. The data reduction procedures are based on combinations of three of the following flow parameters measured in the immediate vicinity of the test section: (1) stagnation pressure behind normal shock, (2) free-stream static pressure, (3) stagnation-point heat-transfer rate, (4) free-stream velocity, and (5) free-stream density. Thus, these procedures do not depend explicitly upon measured or calculated upstream flow parameters. The procedures are incorporated into a single computer program written in FORTRAN IV language. A listing of this computer program is presented, along with a description of the inputs required and a sample of the data printout.

Miller, C. G., III↗
NASA NTRS1996

Endogenous Synthesis of Prebiotic Organic Molecules

The necessary condition for the synthesis of organic compounds on the primitive earth is the presence of reducing conditions. This means an atmosphere of CH4, CO, or CO2 + H2. The atmospheric nitrogen can be N2 with a trace of NH3, but NH4(+) is needed in the ocean at least for amino acid synthesis. Many attempts have been made to use CO2 + H2O atmospheres for prebiotic synthesis, but these give at best extremely low yields of organic compounds, except in the presence of H2. Even strong reducing agents such as FeS + H2S or the mineral assemblages of the submarine vents fail to give significant yields of organic compounds with CO2. There appears to be a high kinetic barrier to the non-biological reduction of CO2 at low temperatures using geological reducing agents. The most abundant source of energy for prebiotic synthesis is ultraviolet light followed by electric discharges, with electric discharges being more efficient, although it is not clear which was the important energy source. Photochemical process would also make significant contributions. In an atmosphere Of CO2, N2, and H2O with no H2, the production rates of HCN and H2CO would be very low, 0.001 or less than that of a relatively reducing atmosphere. The concentration of organic compounds under these non-reducing conditions would be so low that there is doubt whether the concentration mechanism would be adequate for further steps toward the origin of life. A number of workers have calculated the influx of comets and meteorites on the primitive earth as a source of organic compounds. We conclude that while some organic material was added to the earth from comets and meteorites the amount available from these sources at a given time was at best only a few percent of that from earth bases syntheses under reducing conditions.

Miller, Stanley L.↗
DOE OSTI2022

Surface Chemistry and Heterogeneous Processes in Solar-Driven Pyridine-Catalyzed CO 2 Reduction

The objective of our studies was to advance our fundamental understanding of the surface chemistry and heterogeneous processes that occur in solar-driven pyridine-catalyzed CO 2 reduction. Solar-driven CO 2 reduction to produce fuels offers tremendous promise but commercial deployment is impeded by the lack of suitable catalysts that simultaneously provide high efficiency and product selectivity. Pyridine (C 5 H 5 N) has been reported as an effective, selective co-catalyst in the conversion of CO 2 to methanol (CH 3 OH) in photoelectrochemical cells employing gallium phosphide (GaP) photocathodes. However, despite considerable electrochemical characterization and a large number of theoretical considerations, there are still many fundamental questions about the surface chemistry and heterogeneous processes that are involved in the conversion mechanism. Our research was aimed at investigating the role of the electrode surface and heterogeneous processes in this catalysis. Gaining this fundamental understanding of the origin of pyridine’s effectiveness is important to the continued optimization of solar-driven CO 2 reduction.

10 SYNTHETIC FUELS↗
NASA NTRS2010

Microwave Plasma Hydrogen Recovery System

A microwave plasma reactor was developed for the recovery of hydrogen contained within waste methane produced by Carbon Dioxide Reduction Assembly (CRA), which reclaims oxygen from CO2. Since half of the H2 reductant used by the CRA is lost as CH4, the ability to reclaim this valuable resource will simplify supply logistics for longterm manned missions. Microwave plasmas provide an extreme thermal environment within a very small and precisely controlled region of space, resulting in very high energy densities at low overall power, and thus can drive high-temperature reactions using equipment that is smaller, lighter, and less power-consuming than traditional fixed-bed and fluidized-bed catalytic reactors. The high energy density provides an economical means to conduct endothermic reactions that become thermodynamically favorable only at very high temperatures. Microwave plasma methods were developed for the effective recovery of H2 using two primary reaction schemes: (1) methane pyrolysis to H2 and solid-phase carbon, and (2) methane oligomerization to H2 and acetylene. While the carbon problem is substantially reduced using plasma methods, it is not completely eliminated. For this reason, advanced methods were developed to promote CH4 oligomerization, which recovers a maximum of 75 percent of the H2 content of methane in a single reactor pass, and virtually eliminates the carbon problem. These methods were embodied in a prototype H2 recovery system capable of sustained high-efficiency operation. NASA can incorporate the innovation into flight hardware systems for deployment in support of future long-duration exploration objectives such as a Space Station retrofit, Lunar outpost, Mars transit, or Mars base. The primary application will be for the recovery of hydrogen lost in the Sabatier process for CO2 reduction to produce water in Exploration Life Support systems. Secondarily, this process may also be used in conjunction with a Sabatier reactor employed to stockpile life-support oxygen as well as propellant and fuel production from Martian atmospheric CO2

Atwater, James↗
DOE OSTI2024

Final Technical Report

The capture of CO2 and its simultaneously conversion to useful chemical fuels driven by solar energy represents one of the best solutions to resolve our growing energy and environmental concerns. The most critical challenge to this endeavor is the rational design of a photocatalytic architecture that can effectively couple a given photosensitizer (PS) with an appropriate catalyst, thereby enabling efficient photosensitization of a multi-electron reduction catalysis. This research program aims to address this challenge using an interdisciplinary approach that combines innovative material design and synthesis, fundamental mechanistic studies, and photocatalytic performance evaluation. The strategies include 1) constructing and investigating a novel class of 2D COF hybrid photocatalysts with an effective photoactive organic building block as PS and a precisely incorporated CO2 reduction molecular catalyst (MC); and 2) mechanistic origins of CO2 photoreduction using a set of complementary time-resolved and in situ spectroscopic techniques. The novelty of the proposed hybrid system lies in the unprecedented combination of the unique advantage of porous crystalline COF PS with the precise catalytic function of MC for photocatalytic CO2 reduction. In the periods of the support (09/01/2019-12/31/2022), we have made research progress in four projects: 1) Exploring 2D COFs with incorporated Mn complex for light driven CO2 reduction; 2) The dependence of excited state and charge transfer dynamics on monomer structure of 2D COFs; and 3) Control over Charge Separation by Imine Structural Isomerization in Covalent Organic Frameworks with Implications on CO2 Photoreduction; and 4) The impact of monomer structure on the photoluminescence properties of COFs. We found that both monomer structure and linker chemistry can effectively impact the excited state dynamics, charge transfer properties, and photoluminescence quantum yields, the important properties that dictate their applications in photocatalysis. In addition, we found that the direction of imine linker determines charge transfer direction and thus controls the types of catalytic reactions (e.g. water oxidation or CO2 reduction reactions). The result from these fundamental studies provides important information for correlating the structure of the COF photocatalysts with their photophysical properties and catalytic functions, paving the way for their novel application in photocatalysis. We expect that our findings will contribute to addressing current shortcomings of semiconductor- and molecular-based photocatalytic systems that suffer from inefficient light harvesting and charge separation and poor adsorption and activation of reactants. In turn, this research will contribute towards the development of novel photocatalytic systems for CO2 reduction to generate renewable chemical fuels and simultaneously address the problem of mitigating climate change due to CO2 accumulation. In addition, the experimental approaches employed in this research can be easily transferred to other energy technologies and are expected to broadly impact fields involving photocatalysis, optoelectronic devices, and solar energy conversion. The proposed research has also been integrated with educational activities and serve as a basis to raise awareness around the critical issues of global energy production and consumption, and to develop the next generation of solar energy scientists.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗