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NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Overview of the Capture, Containment, and Return System (CCRS)

The Mars Sample Return (MSR) campaign is one of the most ambitious and complex planetary exploration missions currently underway. With the participation of NASA, ESA, and a large number of industry partners, MSR aims to bring Martian soil, rock, and atmospheric samples back to Earth, in order to answer key questions about Mars’ biological evolution. To accomplish this goal the campaign relies on four coordinated missions, each fulfilling a fundamental role to bring the samples to Earth. The Mars Perseverance rover, the first of the four missions, landed safely on Mars on February 18, 2021 and has already acquired candidate samples for Earth return. A selection of the samples of Martian soil and atmosphere that Perseverance has captured during its mission will be recovered, launched into Mars orbit, and transported back to Earth. The Sample Fetch Rover and Mars Ascent System, both parts of the Sample Return Lander project, perform the Mars surface missions to retrieve the collected samples and launch them into Mars orbit. NASA’s Capture, Containment, and Return System (CCRS), hosted on ESA’s Earth Return Orbiter (ERO), brings the samples back to Earth from Mars orbit. These retrieval and return missions are currently in the planning and design stages of development. The NASA-provided CCRS is the payload of the ESA ERO and is the focus of this presentation. ERO will enter Mars orbit and provide communication relay to Earth for the other MSR elements. The Sample Return Lander systems will fetch the sample tubes and integrate them into a protective vessel – the Orbiting Sample (OS) system – which is then launched into low Mars orbit. ERO will perform rendezvous maneuvers, allowing its CCRS payload to capture the OS, contain it, and perform the first automated in-space assembly of a spacecraft, the Earth Entry System (EES), while in Mars orbit. ERO will then begin its journey back to Earth, with CCRS and its assembled EES spacecraft. Three days prior to arrival, CCRS will release the EES on an Earth entry trajectory from a distance beyond the orbit of the Moon. The passive EES spacecraft will then enter Earth’s atmosphere, flying on a ballistic trajectory, followed by a terminal descent (without a parachute) and landing at the Utah Test and Training Range (UTTR). This presentation will show the current design of the CCRS system and its concept of operations. ERO and CCRS will perform several firsts in planetary exploration: (a) orbital rendezvous and capture in Mars orbit, (b) in-space sterilization and containment, (c) on-orbit spacecraft assembly at Mars, and (d) fully-passive entry, descent, and landing sequence for sample return.

Carlie H. Zumwalt↗
NASA NTRS2018

Intra-EVA Space-to-Ground Interactions when Conducting Scientific Fieldwork Under Simulated Mars Mission Constraints

The Biologic Analog Science Associated with Lava Terrains (BASALT) project is a four-year program dedicated to iteratively designing, implementing, and evaluating concepts of operations (ConOps) and supporting capabilities to enable and enhance scientific exploration for future human Mars missions. The BASALT project has incorporated three field deployments during which real (non-simulated) biological and geochemical field science have been conducted at two high-fidelity Mars analog locations under simulated Mars mission conditions, including communication delays and data transmission limitations. BASALT's primary Science objective has been to extract basaltic samples for the purpose of investigating how microbial communities and habitability correlate with the physical and geochemical characteristics of chemically altered basalt environments. Field sites include the active East Rift Zone on the Big Island of Hawai'i, reminiscent of early Mars when basaltic volcanism and interaction with water were widespread, and the dormant eastern Snake River Plain in Idaho, similar to present-day Mars where basaltic volcanism is rare and most evidence for volcano-driven hydrothermal activity is relict. BASALT's primary Science Operations objective has been to investigate exploration ConOps and capabilities that facilitate scientific return during human-robotic exploration under Mars mission constraints. Each field deployment has consisted of ten extravehicular activities (EVAs) on the volcanic flows in which crews of two extravehicular and two intravehicular crewmembers conducted the field science while communicating across time delay and under bandwidth constraints with an Earth-based Mission Support Center (MSC) comprised of expert scientists and operators. Communication latencies of 5 and 15 min one-way light time and low (0.512 Mb/s uplink, 1.54 Mb/s downlink) and high (5.0 Mb/s uplink, 10.0 Mb/s downlink) bandwidth conditions were evaluated. EVA crewmembers communicated with the MSC via voice and text messaging. They also provided scientific instrument data, still imagery, video streams from chest-mounted cameras, GPS location tracking information. The MSC monitored and reviewed incoming data from the field across delay and provided recommendations for pre-sampling and sampling tasks based on their collective expertise. The scientists used dynamic priority ranking lists, referred to as dynamic leaderboards, to track and rank candidate samples relative to one another and against the science objectives for the current EVA and the overall mission. Updates to the dynamic leaderboards throughout the EVA were relayed regularly to the IV crewmembers. The use of these leaderboards enabled the crew to track the dynamic nature of the MSC recommendations and helped minimize crew idle time (defined as time spent waiting for input from Earth during which no other productive tasks are being performed). EVA timelines were strategically designed to enable continuous (delayed) feedback from an Earth-based Science Team while simultaneously minimizing crew idle time. Such timelines are operationally advantageous, reducing transport costs by eliminating the need for crews to return to the same locations on multiple EVAs while still providing opportunities for recommendations from science experts on Earth, and scientifically advantageous by minimizing the potential for cross-contamination across sites. This paper will highlight the space-to-ground interaction results from the three BASALT field deployments, including planned versus actual EVA timeline data, ground assimilation times (defined as the amount of time available to the MSC to provide input to the crew), and idle time. Furthermore, we describe how these results vary under the different communication latency and bandwidth conditions. Together, these data will provide a basis for guiding and prioritizing capability development for future human exploration missions.

Beaton, Kara H.↗
NASA NTRS1965

The mariner 4 occulation experiment.

Mars atmosphere and ionosphere measurements using 2300-mc telemetry signal from Mariner IV SPACECRAFT occultation experiments

SPACECRAFT COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM↗
NASA NTRS1963

Instrumentation aspects of the mars mission.

Feasibility of maintaining continuous high- quality communication, including real-time television, for the entire duration of an earth- mars mission, using conventional devices

INTERPLANETARY COMMUNICATION↗
NASA NTRS2018

Low-Latency Teleoperations: Operational Implications for Human Space Exploration

Low-latency teleoperations (LLT) is envisioned to be an element of human exploration missions in a number of different applications. LLT can be broadly considered to encompass any remote operation of an asset with a communication delay that is less than the human response time to allow for what is effectively "real-time" or "near real-time" operations. This paper will explore motivations and operational implications for why and how LLT might be used for human exploration space missions. LLT analyses have been performed under the auspices of the NASA Human Spaceflight Architecture Team (HAT) and Evolvable Mars Campaign (EMC). The EMC created a flexible, evolvable, capability-driven architectural strategy to enable a sustainable long-term human presence at Mars. LLT is envisioned to be part of that strategy for both in-space and on-surface applications, and this paper will expand on operational considerations within that broader strategic context, as well additional contexts. Some operational implications explored in this paper, derived largely from previous work, are: (1) crew mission support, for which we will address roles for Mission Control on earth, balanced with the capability for crew and robotic assets to operate independently, (2) science operations, with a focus on "backroom" support, highly dynamic science, and enhanced science return and efficiency, and (3) operational efficiency at a deep-space destination such as Mars, including implications for communications infrastructures and how to leverage and balance system autonomy with crew operations, both of which can inform the overall operational "choreography" between crew members, multiple shifts, and exploration assets.

human spaceflight↗
NASA NTRS1986

Manned Mars mission solar physics: Solar energetic particle prediction and warning

There are specific risks to the crew of the manned Mars mission from energetic particles generated by solar activity. Therefore, mission planning must provide for solar monitoring and solar activity forecasts. The main need is to be able to anticipate the energetic particle events associated with some solar flares and, occasionally, with erupting filaments. A second need may be for forecasts of solar interference with radio communication between the manned Mars mission (during any of its three phases) and Earth. These two tasks are compatible with a small solar observatory that would be used during the transit and orbital phases of the mission. Images of the Sun would be made several times per hour and, together with a solar X-ray detector, used to monitor for the occurrence of solar activity. The data would also provide a basis for research studies of the interplanetary medium utilizing observations covering more of the surface of the Sun than just the portion facing Earth.

Suess, S. T.↗
NASA NTRS2004

Spacecraft Orbits for Earth/Mars-Lander Radio Relay

A report discusses a network of spacecraft, in orbit around Mars, used to relay radio communications between Earth stations and mobile exploratory robots (rovers) as well as stationary scientific instruments that have been landed on the Mars surface. The relay spacecraft include two already in orbit plus several others planned to arrive at Mars in the years 2004 through 2008. A major portion of the report is devoted to the orbit of the G. Macroni Orbiter, which is in the midst of an iterative design process and is intended to be the first Mars orbiter designed primarily for radio relay. Candidate orbits are analyzed with a view toward choosing one that maximizes the amount of time available for communication with surface units, taking account of visibility as a function of position, the limit on communication distance at low power, and the fact that surface units can transmit more easily when they are in sunlight. Two promising new orbits for Mars relay satellites are identified: a 1/2-sol apoapsis-at-constant-time-of-day equatorial orbit and a 1/4-sol apoapsis-at-constant-time-of-day, critical-inclination orbit.

Noreen, Gary↗
NASA NTRS2011

Deep-Space Optical Terminals (DOT)

A conceptual design study titled Deep-Space Optical Terminals was recently completed for an optical communication technology demonstration from Mars in the 2018 time frame. We report on engineering trades for the entire system, and for individual subsystems including the flight terminal, the ground receiver and the ground transmitter. A point design is described to meet the requirement for greater than 0.25 Gb/s downlink from the nearest distance to Mars of 0.42 AU with a maximum mass and power allocation of 40 kg and 110 W. Furthermore, the concept design addresses link closure at the farthest Mars range of 2.7 AU. Maximum uplink data-rate of 0.3 Mb/s and ranging with 30 cm precision are also addressed.

optical communications↗
NASA NTRS2019

Marsbee - Swarm of Flapping Wing Flyers for Enhanced Mars Exploration: NASA Innovative Advanced Concepts (NIAC) - Phase I: Final Report

Mars exploration has received significant interest from academia, industry, government, and the general public. Despite continued interest, flying on Mars remains challenging, mainly due to the ultra-thin Martian atmospheric density. Although the gravitational acceleration on Mars is 38 percent of Earth's 9.8 meters per second squared, the Martian atmospheric density is only 1.3 percent of the air density on Earth. The aerodynamic forces are proportional to the ambient fluid density. Therefore, flying near the surface of Mars has been considered nearly impossible. The proposed mission architecture (Fig. 1) consists of a Mars rover (already existing) that serves as a mobile base for Marsbees - a deployable swarm of small bio-inspired flapping wing vehicles. In one ConOps scenario, each Marsbee would carry an integrated stereographic video camera and the swarm could construct a 3D topographic map of the local surface for rover path planning. These flying scouts would provide a "third-dimension" to the rover capabilities. In other scenarios, each part of the swarm of Marsbees could carry pressure and temperature sensors for atmospheric sampling, or small spectral analyzers for identification of mineral outcroppings. In each scenario, the rover acts as a recharging and deployment/return station and data and communication hub. Human exploration of Mars is one of the major objectives of NASA and commercial entities such as SpaceX and Boeing. The identified innovations unique to the bio-inspired flapping Marsbee provide viable multi-mode flying mobility for Martian atmospheric and terrain exploration. A swarm of Marsbees provides an enhanced reconfigurable Mars exploration system that is resilient to individual component failures. These Marsbees can carry sensors and wireless communication devices in combination with a Mars rover and helicopters. These enhanced sensing and information gathering abilities can contribute to the following NASA Mars mission objectives: i) "Determine the habitability of an environment", ii) "Obtain surface weather measurements to validate global atmospheric models", and iii) "Prepare for human exploration on Mars." Various commercial entities, e.g. SpaceX and Boeing, are investing in technologies to transport humans to Mars.

Kang, Chang-kwon↗
NASA NTRS2001

Sub-microradian pointing for deep space optical telecommunications network

This presentation will cover innovative hardware, algorithms, architectures, techniques and recent laboratory results that are applicable to all deep space optical communication links, such as the Mars Telecommunication Network to future interstellar missions.

deep-space optical communication tracking pointing↗
NASA NTRS2020

Neighbors on the Red Planet: Mars Science Laboratory Relay Coordination Post InSight Arrival

The Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) strategic communications planning toolset selects orbiter relay opportunities that the rover will use for transmitting data back to Earth. The toolset was extensively reworked in preparation for the Interior Exploration using Seismic Investigations, Geodesy and Heat Transport's (InSight) arrival at Mars in November 2018 and the regular use of Mars Atmosphere and Volatile Evolution (MAVEN) and Trace Gas Orbiter (TGO) orbiters as relay assets in addition to Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) and 2001 Mars Odyssey (ODY). Overflight selection criteria was automated in the new toolset to take into account overflight deconfliction and down-selection as well as tactical timeline planning impacts and total data return. This was done while remaining flexible and configurable for changing mission priorities. As the Curiosity rover ages, the MSL planning team must overcome issues such as reduced budgets, memory bank anomalies, and reduced power availability. These are some examples of factors that affect the strategic communications planning toolset. In addition to adapting to evolving internal mission needs, the toolset must also be flexible to changes in the relay planning interface with other landers. The concept of shared relay or “split passes” was introduced when InSight began operating on Mars just 600 kilometers away and at the same longitude as MSL. This proximity meant that orbiters could now communicate with two landers during the same relay session. Over time, this new operational use-case became common practice as InSight and MSL settled into relay planning negotiations. Today, many TGO relay sessions are shared between MSL and InSight. As more orbiters pursue integrating this capability into nominal relay operations, and more landers arrive on Mars, the strategic communications process and toolsets increases in complexity. Development of a single tool that schedules relay sessions for all orbiters and landers simultaneously may become necessary as the number of Martian spacecraft increases. Examples of how toolset selection criteria and capabilities have helped or hindered MSL planning will be presented. Ongoing improvements to MSL toolsets and processes, as well as to shared relay tools such as Mars Relay Operations Service (MaROS) and General Telecom Predictor (GTP) are also discussed in this paper. Examples of how toolset selection criteria and capabilities have helped or hindered MSL planning will be presented. Ongoing improvements to MSL toolsets and processes, as well as to shared relay tools such as Mars Relay Operations Service (MaROS) and General Telecom Predictor (GTP) are also discussed in this paper.

Vandermey, Nancy↗
NASA NTRS2006

The Mars Telecommunications Orbiter a key asset in the Mars Network

The Mars Telecommunications Orbiter (MTO) to be launched in 2009 will play a key role in the Mars Network since it will be the first interplanetary mission whose primary objective is to provide communications to existing and upcoming Mars missions, This paper presents a basic description of the primary mission an provides trajectory information for the Mars Telecommunication Orbiter.

Mars Telecommunications Orbiter (MTO)↗
NASA NTRS2006

Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter Ka-band (32 GHz) Demonstration: Cruise Phase Operations

The X-band (8.41 GHz) frequency currently used for deep space telecommunications is too narrow (50 MHz) to support future high rate missions. Because of this NASA has decided to transition to Ka-band (32 GHz) frequencies. As weather effects cause much larger fluctuations on Ka-band than on X-band, the traditional method of using a few dBs of margin to cover these fluctuations is wasteful of power for Ka-band; therefore, a different operations concept is needed for Ka-band links. As part of the development of the operations concept for Ka-band, NASA has implemented a fully functioning Ka-band communications suite on its Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO). This suite will be used during the primary science phase to develop and refine the Ka-band operations concept for deep space missions. In order to test the functional readiness of the spacecraft and the Deep Space Network's (DSN) readiness to support the demonstration activities a series of passes over DSN 34-m Beam Waveguide (BWG) antennas were scheduled during the cruise phase of the mission. MRO was launched on August 12, 2005 from Kennedy Space Center, Cape Canaveral, Florida, USA and went into Mars Orbit on March 10, 2006. A total of ten telemetry demonstration and one high gain antenna (HGA) calibration passes were allocated to the Ka-band demonstration. Furthermore, a number of "shadow" passes were also scheduled where, during a regular MRO track over a Ka-band capable antenna, Ka-band was identically configured as the X-band and tracked by the station. In addition, nine Ka-band delta differential one way ranging ((delta)DOR) passes were scheduled. During these passes, the spacecraft and the ground system were put through their respective paces. Among the highlights of these was setting a single day record for data return from a deep space spacecraft (133 Gbits) achieved during one 10-hour pass; achieving the highest data rate ever from a planetary mission (6 Mbps) and successfully demonstrating Ka-band DDOR. In addition, DSN performed well. However, there are concerns with the active pointing of the Ka-band antennas as well as delivery of the monitor data from the stations. The spacecraft also presented challenges not normally associated with planetary missions mostly because of its very high equivalent isotropic radiated power (EIRP). This caused problems in accurately evaluating the in-flight EIRP of the spacecraft which led to difficulties evaluating the quality of the HGA calibration data. These led to the development of additional measurement techniques that could be used for future high-power deep space missions.

Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO)↗
NASA NTRS2016

NEEMO 18-20: Analog Testing for Mitigation of Communication Latency During Human Space Exploration

NASA Extreme Environment Mission Operations (NEEMO) is an underwater spaceflight analog that allows a true mission-like operational environment and uses buoyancy effects and added weight to simulate different gravity levels. Three missions were undertaken from 2014-2015, NEEMO's 18-20. All missions were performed at the Aquarius undersea research habitat. During each mission, the effects of communication latencies on operations concepts, timelines, and tasks were studied. METHODS: Twelve subjects (4 per mission) were weighed out to simulate near-zero or partial gravity extravehicular activity (EVA) and evaluated different operations concepts for integration and management of a simulated Earth-based science team (ST) to provide input and direction during exploration activities. Exploration traverses were preplanned based on precursor data. Subjects completed science-related tasks including pre-sampling surveys, geologic-based sampling, and marine-based sampling as a portion of their tasks on saturation dives up to 4 hours in duration that were designed to simulate extravehicular activity (EVA) on Mars or the moons of Mars. One-way communication latencies, 5 and 10 minutes between space and mission control, were simulated throughout the missions. Objective data included task completion times, total EVA times, crew idle time, translation time, ST assimilation time (defined as time available for ST to discuss data/imagery after data acquisition). Subjective data included acceptability, simulation quality, capability assessment ratings, and comments. RESULTS: Precursor data can be used effectively to plan and execute exploration traverse EVAs (plans included detailed location of science sites, high-fidelity imagery of the sites, and directions to landmarks of interest within a site). Operations concepts that allow for pre-sampling surveys enable efficient traverse execution and meaningful Mission Control Center (MCC) interaction across communication latencies and can be done with minimal crew idle time. Imagery and contextual information from the EVA crew that is transmitted real-time to the intravehicular (IV) crewmember(s) can be used to verify that exploration traverse plans are being executed correctly. That same data can be effectively used by MCC (across comm latency) to provide meaningful feedback and instruction to the crew regarding sampling priorities, additional tasks, and changes to the EVA timeline. Text / data capabilities are preferred over voice capabilities between MCC and IV when executing exploration traverse plans over communication latency.

Chappell, Steven P.↗
NASA NTRS2009

Smart Ultrasound Remote Guidance Experiment (SURGE) Preliminary Findings

To date, diagnostic quality ultrasound images were obtained aboard the International Space Station (ISS) using the ultrasound of the Human Research Facility (HRF) rack in the Laboratory module. Through the Advanced Diagnostic Ultrasound in Microgravity (ADUM) and the Braslet-M Occlusion Cuffs (BRASLET SDTO) studies, non-expert ultrasound operators aboard the ISS have performed cardiac, thoracic, abdominal, vascular, ocular, and musculoskeletal ultrasound assessments using remote guidance from ground-based ultrasound experts. With exploration class missions to the lunar and Martian surfaces on the horizon, crew medical officers will necessarily need to operate with greater autonomy given communication delays (round trip times of up to 5 seconds for the Moon and 90 minutes for Mars) and longer periods of communication blackouts (due to orbital constraints of communication assets). The SURGE project explored the feasibility and training requirements of having non-expert ultrasound operators perform autonomous ultrasound assessments in a simulated exploration mission outpost. The project aimed to identify experience, training, and human factors requirements for crew medical officers to perform autonomous ultrasonography. All of these aims pertained to the following risks from the NASA Bioastronautics Road Map: 1) Risk 18: Major Illness and Trauna; 2) Risk 20) Ambulatory Care; 3) Risk 22: Medical Informatics, Technologies, and Support Systems; and 4) Risk 23: Medical Skill Training and Maintenance.

Hurst, Victor↗
NASA NTRS2006

Integrated Human-Robotic Missions to the Moon and Mars: Mission Operations Design Implications

For most of the history of space exploration, human and robotic programs have been independent, and have responded to distinct requirements. The NASA Vision for Space Exploration calls for the return of humans to the Moon, and the eventual human exploration of Mars; the complexity of this range of missions will require an unprecedented use of automation and robotics in support of human crews. The challenges of human Mars missions, including roundtrip communications time delays of 6 to 40 minutes, interplanetary transit times of many months, and the need to manage lifecycle costs, will require the evolution of a new mission operations paradigm far less dependent on real-time monitoring and response by an Earthbound operations team. Robotic systems and automation will augment human capability, increase human safety by providing means to perform many tasks without requiring immediate human presence, and enable the transfer of traditional mission control tasks from the ground to crews. Developing and validating the new paradigm and its associated infrastructure may place requirements on operations design for nearer-term lunar missions. The authors, representing both the human and robotic mission operations communities, assess human lunar and Mars mission challenges, and consider how human-robot operations may be integrated to enable efficient joint operations, with the eventual emergence of a unified exploration operations culture.

Korth, David↗