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The Shuttle first demonstrated the capability to perform precision proximity flying in 1983 when the SPAS-01 satellite was deployed and subsequently retrieved. This flight was intended to validate the capability of the Shuttle to perform proximity operations with a co-orbiting vehicle in preparation for the Solar Maximum Repair mission of the next year.
Automated spacecraft docking operations are being performed using a full scale motion based simulator and an optical sensor. This presentation will discuss the work in progress at TRW and MSFC facilities to study the problem of automated proximity and docking operations. The docking sensor used in the MSFC Optical Sensor and simulation runs are performed using the MSFC Flat Floor Facility. The control algorithms and six degrees of freedom (6DOF) simulation software were developed at TRW and integrated into the MSFC facility. Key issues being studied are the quantification of docking sensor requirements and operational constraints necessary to perform automated docking maneuvers, control algorithms capable of performing automated docking in the presence of sensitive and noisy sensor data, and sensor technologies for automated proximity and docking operations. As part of this study the MSFC sensor characteristics were analyzed and modeled so that off line simulation runs can be performed for control algorithm testing. Our goal is to develop and demonstrate full 6DOF docking capabilities with actual sensors on the MSFC motion based simulator. We present findings from actual docking simulation runs which show sensor and control loop performance as well as problem areas which require close attention. The evolution of various control algorithms using both phase plane and Clohessy-Wiltshire techniques are discussed. In addition, 6DOF target acquisition and control strategies are described.
The European Space Agency (ESA) has been working to develop an autonomous rendezvous and docking capability since 1984 to enable Hermes to automatically dock with Columbus. As a result, ESA with Matra, MBB, and other space companies have developed technologies that are also directly supportive of the current NASA initiative for Automated Rendezvous and Capture. Fairchild and Matra would like to discuss the results of the applicable ESA/Matra rendezvous and capture developments, and suggest how these capabilities could be used, together with an existing NASA Explorer Platform satellite, to minimize new development and accomplish a cost effective automatic closure and capture demonstration program. Several RV sensors have been developed at breadboard level for the Hermes/Columbus program by Matra, MBB, and SAAB. Detailed algorithms for automatic rendezvous, closure, and capture have been developed by ESA and CNES for application with Hermes to Columbus rendezvous and docking, and they currently are being verified with closed-loop software simulation. The algorithms have multiple closed-loop control modes and phases starting at long range using GPS navigation. Differential navigation is used for coast/continuous thrust homing, holdpoint acquisition, V-bar hopping, and station point acquisition. The proximity operation sensor is used for final closure and capture. A subset of these algorithms, comprising the proximity operations algorithms, could easily be extracted and tailored to a limited objective closure and capture flight demonstration.
The NASA Johnson Space Center is actively pursuing the development and demonstration of capabilities for automatic rendezvous, proximity operations, and capture (AR&C) using the Space Shuttle as the active vehicle. This activity combines the technologies, expertise, tools, and facilities of the JSC Tracking and Communications Division (EE), Navigation, Control and Aeronautics Division (EG), Automation and Robotics Division (ER), and Structures and Mechanics Division (ES) of the Engineering Directorate and the Flight Design and Dynamics Division (DM) of the Mission Operations Directorate. Potential benefits of AR&C include more efficient and repeatable rendezvous, proximity operations, and capture operations; reduced impacts on the target vehicles (e.g., Orbiter RCS plume loads); reduced flight crew work loads; reduced ground support requirements; and reduced operational constraints. This paper documents the current JSC capabilities/tools/facilities for AR&C and describes a proposed plan for a progression of ground demonstrations and flight tests and demonstrations of AR&C capabilities. This plan involves the maturing of existing technologies in tracking and communications; guidance, navigation and control; mechanisms; manipulators; and systems management and integrating them into several evolutionary demonstration stages.
Viewgraphs on proximity operations in space station environment are presented. Topics covered include: automated flight; remote manual piloting; task requirements and constraints; problem formulation; and flight parameter flow/pilot interaction for proximity operations task.
A 10 GHz hybrid YBCO/GaAs microwave oscillator proximity coupled to a circular microstrip antenna has been designed, fabricated, and characterized. The oscillator was a reflection mode type using a GaAs MESFET as the active element. The feedline, transmission lines, RF chokes, and bias lines were all fabricated from YBCO superconducting thin films on a 1 cm x 1 cm lanthanum aluminate substrate. The output feedline of the oscillator was wire bonded to a superconducting feedline on a second 1 cm x 1 cm lanthanum aluminate substrate, which was in turn proximity coupled to a circular microstrip patch antenna. Antenna patterns from this active patch antenna and the performance of the oscillator measured at 77 K are reported. The oscillator had a maximum output power of 11.5 dBm at 77 K, which corresponded to an efficiency of 10 percent. In addition, the efficiency of the microstrip patch antenna together with its high temperature superconducting feedline was measured from 85 K to 30 K and was found to be 71 percent at 77 K, increasing to a maximum of 87.4 percent at 30 K.
A capacity type proximity sensor comprised of a capacitance type sensor, a capacitance type reference, and two independent and mutually opposing driven shields respectively adjacent to the sensor and reference and which are coupled in an electrical bridge circuit configuration and driven by a single frequency crystal controlled oscillator is presented. The bridge circuit additionally includes a pair of fixed electrical impedance elements which form adjacent arms of the bridge and which comprise either a pair of precision resistances or capacitors. Detection of bridge unbalance provides an indication of the mutual proximity between an object and the sensor. Drift compensation is also utilized to improve performance and thus increase sensor range and sensitivity.
Complex computer generated phase holograms (CGPH's) have been fabricated in PMMA by partial e-beam exposure and subsequent partial development. The CGPH was encoded as a sequence of phase delay pixels and written by the JEOL JBX-5D2 E-beam lithography system, a different dose being assigned to each value of phase delay. Following carefully controlled partial development, the pattern appeared rendered in relief in the PMMA, which then acts as the phase-delay medium. The exposure dose was in the range 20-200 micro-C/sq cm, and very aggressive development in pure acetone led to low contrast. This enabled etch depth control to better than plus or minus lambda(sub vis)/60. That result was obtained by exposing isolated 50 micron square patches and measuring resist removal over the central area where the proximity effect dose was uniform and related only to the local exposure. For complex CGPH's with pixel size of the order of the e-beam proximity effect radius, the patterns must be corrected for the extra exposure caused by electrons scattered back up out of the substrate. This has been accomplished by deconvolving the two-dimensional dose deposition function with the desired dose pattern. The deposition function, which plays much the same role as an instrument response function, was carefully measured under the exact conditions used to expose the samples. The devices fabricated were designed with 16 equal phase steps per retardation cycle, were up to 1 cm square, and consisted of up to 100 million 0.3-2.0 micron square pixels. Data files were up to 500 MB long and exposure times ranged to tens of hours. A Fresnel phase lens was fabricated that had diffraction limited optical performance with better than 85 percent efficiency.
A 10 GHz hybrid Y-Ba-Cu-O / GaAs microwave oscillator proximity coupled to a circular microstrip antenna was designed, fabricated and characterized. The oscillator was a reflection mode type using a GaAs MESFET as the active element. The feedline, transmission lines, RF chokes, and bias lines were all fabricated from YBa2Cu3O(7-x) superconducting thin films on a 1 cm x 1 cm lanthanum aluminate substrate. The output feedline of the oscillator was wire bonded to a superconducting feedline on a second 1 cm x 1 cm lanthanum aluminate substrate, which was in turn proximity coupled to a circular microstrip patch antenna. Antenna patterns from this active patch antenna and the performance of the oscillator measured at 77 K are reported. The oscillator had a maximum output power of 11.5 dBm at 77 K, which corresponded to an efficiency of 10 percent. In addition, the efficiency of the microstrip patch antenna together with its high temperature superconducting feedline was measured from 85 K to 30 K and was found to be 71 percent at 77 4 increasing to a maximum of 87.4 percent at 30 K.
The purpose of this study was to determine if human parathyroid hormone-(1-38) (PTH) can restore cancellous bone mass to the established osteopenic, immobilized proximal tibial metaphyses (PTM) of female rats. The right hindlimbs of six-month-old female Sprague-Dawley rats were immobilized by bandaging the right hindlimbs to the abdomen. After 30 days of right hindlimb immobilization (RHLI), the rats were subcutaneously injected with 200 microgram hPTH(1-38)/kg/day for 15 (short-term) or 75 (longer-term) days. Static bone histomorphometry was performed on the primary spongiosa, while both static and dynamic histomorphometry were performed on the secondary spongiosa of the right PTM. Immobilization for 30 days without treatment decreased trabecular bone area, number and thickness in both primary and secondary spongiosa, and induced an increase in eroded perimeter and a decrease in tissue referent-bone formation rate (BFR/TV) in the secondary spongios. These changes reached a new steady state thereafter. Treatment with 200 microgram hPTH(1-38)/kg/day for 15 days, beginning at 30 days post immobilization (IM), significantly increased trabecular bone area, thickness and number in both primary and secondary spongiosa despite continuous IM when compared to the age-related and IM controls. The short-term (15 days) PTH treatment significantly increased labeling perimeter, mineral apposition rate and BFR/TV in the secondary spongiosa and stimulated longitudinal bone growth as compared to the age-related and IM controls. PTH treatment for longer-term (75 days) further increased trabecular bone area, thickness and number as compared to aging and IM controls and short-term (15 days) PTH treated groups. The bone formation indices in the secondary spongiosa of these longer-term treated rats were lower than that of short-term (15 days) PTH treated group, but they were still higher than those of IM and age-related controls. Our findings indicate that PTH treatment stimulates cancellous bone formation, restores and adds extra cancellous bone to the established, disuse-osteopenic proximal tibial metaphysis of continuously RHLI female rats. These results suggest that PTH may be a useful agent in treatment disuse-induced osteoporosis in humans.
Two Controlled Ecological Life Support System (CELSS) candidate crops, soybean (Glycine max) and potato (Solanum tuberosum), were grown hydroponically in controlled environments maintained at carbon dioxide (CO2) partial pressures ranging from 0.05 to 1.00 kPa (500 to 10,000 ppm at 101 kPa atmospheric pressure). Plants were harvested at maturity (90 days for soybean and 105 days for potato) and all tissues analyzed for proximate nutritional composition (i.e. protein, fat, carbohydrate, crude fiber, and ash content). Soybean seed ash and crude fiber were higher and carbohydrate was lower than values reported for field-grown seed. Potato tubers showed little difference from field-grown tubers. Crude fiber of soybean stems and leaves increased with increased CO2, as did soybean leaf protein (total nitrogen). Potato leaf and stem (combined) protein levels also increased with increased CO2, while leaf and stem carbohydrates decreased. Values for leaf and stem protein and ash were higher than values generally reported for field-grown plants for both species. Results suggest that CO2 partial pressure should have little influence on proximate composition of potato tubers or soybean seed, but that high ash and protein levels might be expected from leaves and stems of crops grown in controlled environments of a CELSS.
Collision-avoidance system for articulated robot manipulators uses infrared proximity sensors grouped together in array of sensor modules. Sensor modules, called "sensorCells," distributed processing board-level products for acquiring data from proximity-sensors strategically mounted on robot manipulators. Each sensorCell self-contained and consists of multiple sensing elements, discrete electronics, microcontroller and communications components. Modules connected to central control computer by redundant serial digital communication subsystem including both serial and a multi-drop bus. Detects objects made of various materials at distance of up to 50 cm. For some materials, such as thermal protection system tiles, detection range reduced to approximately 20 cm.
Results are presented of a wind-tunnel investigation of the longitudinal stability, control, and performance characteristics of a model of a four-propeller deflected-slipstream VTOL airplane in the transition speed range. These results indicate that steady level-flight transition and descending flight-path angles up to 7 or 8 deg. out of the region of ground effect can be accomplished without wing stall being encountered. In general, the pitching moments out of ground proximity can be adequately trimmed by programming the stabilizer incidence to increase with increasing flap deflection, except for a relatively large diving moment in the hovering condition. The deflection of the slipstream onto the horizontal tail in proximity of the ground substantially increases the diving moment in hovering, unless the tail is set at a large nosedown incidence.
The nonlinear rescaling principle (NRP) consists of transforming the objective function and/or the constraints of a given constrained optimization problem into another problem which is equivalent to the original one in the sense that their optimal set of solutions coincides. A nonlinear transformation parameterized by a positive scalar parameter and based on a smooth scaling function is used to transform the constraints. The methods based on NRP consist of sequential unconstrained minimization of the classical Lagrangian for the equivalent problem, followed by an explicit formula updating the Lagrange multipliers. We first show that the NRP leads naturally to proximal methods with an entropy-like kernel, which is defined by the conjugate of the scaling function, and establish that the two methods are dually equivalent for convex constrained minimization problems. We then study the convergence properties of the nonlinear rescaling algorithm and the corresponding entropy-like proximal methods for convex constrained optimization problems. Special cases of the nonlinear resealing algorithm are presented. In particular a new class of exponential penalty-modified barrier functions methods is introduced.
Space Shuttle rendezous missions presented unique challenges that were not fully recognized when the Shuttle was designed. Rendezvous targets could be passive (i.e., no lights or transponders), and not designed to facilitate Shuttle rendezvous, proximity operations and retrieval. Shuttle reaction control system jet plume impingement on target spacecraft presented induced dynamics, structural loading and contamination concerns. These issues, along with limited forward reaction control system propellant, drove a change from the Gemimi/Apollo coelliptic profile heritage to a stable orbit profile, and the development of new proximity operations techniques. Multiple scientific and on-orbit servicing missions and crew exchange, assembly and replinishment flights to Mir and to the International Space Station drove further profile and piloting technique changes, including new relative navigation sensors and new computer generated piloting cues.
The Next Generation Advanced Video Guidance Sensor (NGAVGS) has been under development for the last three years as a long-range proximity operations and docking sensor for use in an Automated Rendezvous and Docking (AR&D) system. The first autonomous rendezvous and docking in the history of the U.S. Space Program was successfully accomplished by Orbital Express, using the Advanced Video Guidance Sensor (AVGS) as the primary docking sensor. That flight proved that the United States now has a mature and flight proven sensor technology for supporting Crew Exploration Vehicles (CEV) and Commercial Orbital Transport Systems (COTS) Automated Rendezvous and Docking (AR&D). NASA video sensors have worked well in the past: the AVGS used on the Demonstration of Autonomous Rendezvous Technology (DART) mission operated successfully in spot mode out to 2 km, and the first generation rendezvous and docking sensor, the Video Guidance Sensor (VGS), was developed and successfully flown on Space Shuttle flights in 1997 and 1998. 12 Parts obsolescence issues prevent the construction of more AVGS units, and the next generation sensor was updated to allow it to support the CEV and COTS programs. The flight proven AR&D sensor has been redesigned to update parts and add additional capabilities for CEV and COTS with the development of the Next Generation AVGS at the Marshall Space Flight Center. The obsolete imager and processor are being replaced with new radiation tolerant parts. In addition, new capabilities include greater sensor range, auto ranging capability, and real-time video output. This paper presents some sensor hardware trades, use of highly integrated laser components, and addresses the needs of future vehicles that may rendezvous and dock with the International Space Station (ISS) and other Constellation vehicles. It also discusses approaches for upgrading AVGS to address parts obsolescence, and concepts for minimizing the sensor footprint, weight, and power requirements. In addition, the testing of the brassboard and proto-type NGAVGS units will be discussed along with the use of the NGAVGS as a proximity operations and docking sensor.
We have found experimentally that the critical current of a square superconducting transition-edge sensor (TES) depends exponentially upon the side length L and the square root of the temperature T. As a consequence, the effective transition temperature T(sub c) of the TES is current-dependent and at fixed current scales as 1/L(sup 2). We also have found that the critical current can show clear Fraunhofer-like oscillations in an applied magnetic field, similar to those found in Josephson junctions. The observed behavior has a natural theoretical explanation in terms of longitudinal proximity effects if the TES is regarded as a weak link between superconducting leads. We have observed the proximity effect in these devices over extraordinarily long lengths exceeding 100 microns.
We have found experimentally that the critical current of a square thin-film superconducting transition-edge sensor (TES) depends exponentially upon the side length L and the square root of the temperature T, a behavior that has a natural theoretical explanation in terms of longitudinal proximity effects if the TES is regarded as a weak link between superconducting leads. As a consequence, the effective transition temperature T(sub c) of the TES is current-dependent and at fixed current scales as 1/L(sup 2). We also have found that the critical current can show clear Fraunhofer-like oscillations in an applied magnetic field, similar to those found in Josephson junctions. We have observed the longitudinal proximity effect in these devices over extraordinarily long lengths up to 290 micrometers, 1450 times the mean-free path.