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NASA NTRS2004

Characterization of Unsteady Flow Structures Near Leading-Edge Slat: PIV Measurements - Part 1

A comprehensive computational and experimental study has been performed at the NASA Langley Research Center as part of the Quiet Aircraft Technology (QAT) Program to investigate the unsteady flow near a leading-edge slat of a two-dimensional, high-lift system. This paper focuses on the experimental effort conducted in the NASA Langley Basic Aerodynamics Research Tunnel (BART) where Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) data was acquired in the slat cove and at the slat trailing edge of a three-element, high-lift model at 4, 6, and 8 degrees angle of attack and a freestream Mach Number of 0.17. Instantaneous velocities obtained from PIV images are used to obtain mean and fluctuating components of velocity and vorticity. The data show the recirculation in the cove, reattachment of the shear layer on the slat lower surface, and discrete vortical structures within the shear layer emanating from the slat cusp and slat trailing edge. Detailed measurements are used to examine the shear layer formation at the slat cusp, vortex shedding at the slat trailing edge, and convection of vortical structures through the slat gap. Selected results are discussed and compared with unsteady, Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes (URANS) computations for the same configuration in a companion paper by Khorrami, Choudhari, and Jenkins (2004). The experimental dataset provides essential flow-field information for the validation of near-field inputs to noise prediction tools.

Jenkins, Luther N.↗

NASA NTRS2004

The Acoustic Analogy: A Powerful Tool in Aeroacoustics with Emphasis on Jet Noise Prediction

The acoustic analogy introduced by Lighthill to study jet noise is now over 50 years old. In the present paper, Lighthill s Acoustic Analogy is revisited together with a brief evaluation of the state-of-the-art of the subject and an exploration of the possibility of further improvements in jet noise prediction from analytical methods, computational fluid dynamics (CFD) predictions, and measurement techniques. Experimental Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) data is used both to evaluate turbulent statistics from Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) CFD and to propose correlation models for the Lighthill stress tensor. The NASA Langley Jet3D code is used to study the effect of these models on jet noise prediction. From the analytical investigation, a retarded time correction is shown that improves, by approximately 8 dB, the over-prediction of aft-arc jet noise by Jet3D. In experimental investigation, the PIV data agree well with the CFD mean flow predictions, with room for improvement in Reynolds stress predictions. Initial modifications, suggested by the PIV data, to the form of the Jet3D correlation model showed no noticeable improvements in jet noise prediction.

Farassat, F.↗

NASA NTRS2004

Application of Excitation from Multiple Locations on a Simplified High-Lift System

A series of active flow control experiments were recently conducted on a simplified high-lift system. The purpose of the experiments was to explore the prospects of eliminating all but simply hinged leading and trailing edge flaps, while controlling separation on the supercritical airfoil using multiple periodic excitation slots. Excitation was provided by three. independently controlled, self-contained, piezoelectric actuators. Low frequency excitation was generated through amplitude modulation of the high frequency carrier wave, the actuators' resonant frequencies. It was demonstrated, for the first time, that pulsed modulated signal from two neighboring slots interact favorably to increase lift. Phase sensitivity at the low frequency was measured, even though the excitation was synthesized from the high-frequency carrier wave. The measurements were performed at low Reynolds numbers and included mean and unsteady surface pressures, surface hot-films, wake pressures and particle image velocimetry. A modest (6%) increase in maximum lift (compared to the optimal baseline) was obtained due t o the activation of two of the three actuators.

Melton, LaTunia Pack↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

A Separation Control CFD Validation Test Case: Baseline and Steady Suction - Part 1

Low speed flow separation over a wall-mounted hump, and its control using steady suction, were studied experimentally in order to generate a data set for a workshop aimed at validating CFD turbulence models. The baseline and controlled data sets comprised static and dynamic surface pressure measurements, flow field measurements using Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) and wall shear stress obtained via oil-film interferometry. In addition to the specific test cases studied, surface pressures for a wide variety of conditions were reported for different Reynolds numbers and suction rates. Stereoscopic PIV and oil-film flow visualization indicated that the baseline separated flow field was mainly two- dimensional. With the application of control, some three-dimensionality was evident in the spanwise variation of pressure recovery, reattachment location and spanwise pressure fluctuations. Part 2 of this paper, under preparation for the AIAA Meeting in Reno 2005, considers separation control by means of zero-efflux oscillatory blowing.

David Greenblatt↗

NASA NTRS2004

A Separation Control CFD Validation Test Case: Baseline and Steady Suction - Part 1

Low speed flow separation over a wall-mounted hump, and its control using steady suction, were studied experimentally in order to generate a data set for a workshop aimed at validating CFD turbulence models. The baseline and controlled data sets comprised static and dynamic surface pressure measurements, flow field measurements using Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) and wall shear stress obtained via oil-film interferometry. In addition to the specific test cases studied, surface pressures for a wide variety of conditions were reported for different Reynolds numbers and suction rates. Stereoscopic PIV and oil-film flow visualization indicated that the baseline separated flow field was mainly two-dimensional. With the application of control, some three-dimensionality was evident in the spanwise variation of pressure recovery, reattachment location and spanwise pressure fluctuations. Part 2 of this paper, under preparation for the AIAA Meeting in Reno 2005, considers separation control by means of zero-efflux oscillatory blowing.

Greenblatt, David↗

NASA NTRS2004

Synthetic Jet Flow Field Database for CFD Validation

An oscillatory zero net mass flow jet was generated by a cavity-pumping device, namely a synthetic jet actuator. This basic oscillating jet flow field was selected as the first of the three test cases for the Langley workshop on CFD Validation of Synthetic Jets and Turbulent Separation Control. The purpose of this workshop was to assess the current CFD capabilities to predict unsteady flow fields of synthetic jets and separation control. This paper describes the characteristics and flow field database of a synthetic jet in a quiescent fluid. In this experiment, Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV), Laser Doppler Velocimetry (LDV), and hot-wire anemometry were used to measure the jet velocity field. In addition, the actuator operating parameters including diaphragm displacement, internal cavity pressure, and internal cavity temperature were also documented to provide boundary conditions for CFD modeling.

Yao, Chung-Sheng↗

NASA NTRS1999

In Search of the Physics: NASA's Approach to Airframe Noise

An extensive numerical and experimental study of airframe noise mechanisms associated with a subsonic high-lift system has been performed at NASA Langley Research Center (LaRC). Investigations involving both steady and unsteady computations and experiments on small-scale models with part-span flaps and full-span flaps are presented. Both surface (steady and unsteady pressure measurements, hot films, oil flows, pressure sensitive paint) and off-surface (5 holeprobe, particle-imaged velocimetry, laser velocimetry, laser light sheet measurements) were taken in the LaRC Quiet Flow Facility (QFF) and several hard-wall tunnels. Experiments in the Low Turbulence Pressure Tunnel (LTPT) included Reynolds number variations up to flight conditions. Successful microphone array measurements were also taken providing both acoustic source maps on the model, and quantitative spectra. Critical directivity measurements were obtained in the QFF. NASA Langley unstructured and structured Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes codes modeled the steady aspects of the flows. Excellent comparisons with surface and off-surface experimental data were obtained. Subsequently, these meanflow calculations were utilized in both linear stability and direct numerical simulations of the flow fields to calculate unsteady surface pressures and farfield acoustic spectra. Accurate calculations were critical in obtaining not only noise source characteristics, but shear layer correction data as well. Techniques utilized in these investigations as well as brief overviews of the results are given.

Macaraeg, Michele G.↗

NASA NTRS2002

Flow field measurements in the cell culture unit

The cell culture unit (CCU) is being designed to support cell growth for long-duration life science experiments on the International Space Station (ISS). The CCU is a perfused loop system that provides a fluid environment for controlled cell growth experiments within cell specimen chambers (CSCs), and is intended to accommodate diverse cell specimen types. Many of the functional requirements depend on the fluid flow field within the CSC (e.g., feeding and gas management). A design goal of the CCU is to match, within experimental limits, all environmental conditions, other than the effects of gravity on the cells, whether the hardware is in microgravity ( micro g), normal Earth gravity, or up to 2g on the ISS centrifuge. In order to achieve this goal, two steps are being taken. The first step is to characterize the environmental conditions of current 1g cell biology experiments being performed in laboratories using ground-based hardware. The second step is to ensure that the design of the CCU allows the fluid flow conditions found in 1g to be replicated from microgravity up to 2g. The techniques that are being used to take these steps include flow visualization, particle image velocimetry (PIV), and computational fluid dynamics (CFD). Flow visualization using the injection of dye has been used to gain a global perspective of the characteristics of the CSC flow field. To characterize laboratory cell culture conditions, PIV is being used to determine the flow field parameters of cell suspension cultures grown in Erlenmeyer flasks on orbital shakers. These measured parameters will be compared to PIV measurements in the CSCs to ensure that the flow field that cells encounter in CSCs is within the bounds determined for typical laboratory experiments. Using CFD, a detailed simulation is being developed to predict the flow field within the CSC for a wide variety of flow conditions, including microgravity environments. Results from all these measurements and analyses of the CSC flow environment are presented and discussed. The final configuration of the CSC employs magnetic stir bars with angled paddles to achieve the necessary flow requirements within the CSC.

Cell Culture↗

NASA NTRS2004

Fundamental Investigations of Airframe Noise

An extensive numerical and experimental study of airframe noise mechanisms associated with a subsonic high-lift system has been performed at NASA Langley Research Center (LaRC). Investigations involving both steady and unsteady computations and experiments on a small-scale, part-span flap model are presented. Both surface (steady and unsteady pressure measurements, hot films, oil flows, pressure sensitive paint) and off surface (5 hole-probe, particle-imaged velocimetry, laser velocimetry, laser light sheet measurements) were taken in the LaRC Quiet Flow Facility (QFF) and several hard-wall tunnels up to flight Reynolds number. Successful microphone array measurements were also taken providing both acoustic source maps on the model, and quantitative spectra. Critical directivity measurements were obtained in the QFF. NASA Langley unstructured and structured Reynolds- Averaged Navier-Stokes codes modeled the flap geometries excellent comparisons with surface and offsurface experimental data were obtained. Subsequently, these meanflow calculations were utilized in both linear stability and direct numerical simulations of the flap-edge flow field to calculate unsteady surface pressures and farfield acoustic spectra. Accurate calculations were critical in obtaining not only noise source characteristics, but shear layer correction data as well. Techniques utilized in these investigations as well as brief overviews of results will be given.

Macaraeg, M. G.↗

NASA NTRS2004

Cross-Stream PIV Measurements of Jets With Internal Lobed Mixers

With emphasis being placed on enhanced mixing of jet plumes for noise reduction and on predictions of jet noise based upon turbulent kinetic energy, unsteady measurements of jet plumes are a very important part of jet noise studies. Given that hot flows are of most practical interest, optical techniques such as Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) are applicable. When the flow has strong azimuthal features, such as those generated by chevrons or lobed mixers, traditional PIV, which aligns the measurement plane parallel to the dominant flow direction is very inefficient, requiring many planes of data to be acquired and stacked up to produce the desired flow cross-sections. This paper presents PIV data acquired in a plane normal to the jet axis, directly measuring the cross-stream gradients and features of an internally mixed nozzle operating at aircraft engine flow conditions. These nozzle systems included variations in lobed mixer penetration, lobe count, lobe scalloping, and nozzle length. Several cases validating the accuracy of the PIV data are examined along with examples of its use in answering questions about the jet noise generation processes in these nozzles. Of most interest is the relationship of low frequency aft-directed noise with turbulence kinetic energy and mean velocity.

Bridges, James↗

NASA NTRS2003

Modeling of Biological Fluid Systems

This study presents a detailed methodology for modeling and validating three- dimensional fluid flow in realistic reconstructed vasculature geometry. Optical scanned data from a sectioned stenotic lumen having -65% area constriction within an arterial vessel of 9 mm diameter is processed and converted into a finite-element mesh. Mass and momentum transfer equations within the reconstructed stenotic vessel with a-flow rate of 200 ml/rnin is solved using the Galarkin Finite Element formulation. The calculated velocities at several axial locations along the length of the vessel are compared with the Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) measurements. The computation results are in agreement with the initial steady state PIV measurements. In addition, initial results from pulsatile flow computations at different time points of a pulse cycle will be presented.

Banerjee, Rupak↗

NASA NTRS2005

Technologies for Turbofan Noise Reduction

An overview presentation of NASA's engine noise research since 1992 is given for subsonic commercial aircraft applications. Highlights are included from the Advanced Subsonic Technology (AST) Noise Reduction Program and the Quiet Aircraft Technology (QAT) project with emphasis on engine source noise reduction. Noise reduction goals for 10 EPNdB by 207 and 20 EPNdB by 2022 are reviewed. Fan and jet noise technologies are highlighted from the AST program including higher bypass ratio propulsion, scarf inlets, forward-swept fans, swept/leaned stators, chevron nozzles, noise prediction methods, and active noise control for fans. Source diagnostic tests for fans and jets that have been completed over the past few years are presented showing how new flow measurement methods such as Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) have played a key role in understanding turbulence, the noise generation process, and how to improve noise prediction methods. Tests focused on source decomposition have helped identify which engine components need further noise reduction. The role of Computational AeroAcoustics (CAA) for fan noise prediction is presented. Advanced noise reduction methods such as Hershel-Quincke tubes and trailing edge blowing for fan noise that are currently being pursued n the QAT program are also presented. Highlights are shown form engine validation and flight demonstrations that were done in the late 1990's with Pratt & Whitney on their PW4098 engine and Honeywell on their TFE-731-60 engine. Finally, future propulsion configurations currently being studied that show promise towards meeting NASA's long term goal of 20 dB noise reduction are shown including a Dual Fan Engine concept on a Blended Wing Body aircraft.

Huff, Dennis↗

NASA NTRS2005

The Effect of Projectile Density and Disruption on the Crater Excavation Flow-Field

The ejection parameters of material excavated by a growing crater directly relate to the subsurface excavation flow-field. The ejection angles and speeds define the end of subsurface material streamlines at the target surface. Differences in the subsurface flow-fields can be inferred by comparing observed ejection parameters of various impacts obtained using three-dimensional particle image velocimetry (3D PIV). The work presented here investigates the observed ejection speeds and angles of material ejected during vertical (90 impact angle) experimental impacts for a range of different projectile types. The subsurface flow-fields produced during vertical impacts are simple when compared with that of oblique impacts, affected primarily by the depth of the energy and momentum deposition of the projectile. This depth is highly controlled by the projectile/target density ratio and the disruption of the projectile (brittle vs. ductile deformation). Previous studies indicated that cratering efficiency and the crater diameter/depth ratio were affected by projectile disruption, velocity, and the projectile/target density ratio. The effect of these projectile properties on the excavation flow-field are examined by comparing different projectile materials.

Anderson, Jennifer L. B.↗

NASA NTRS2004

The Development of a Plan for the Assessment, Improvement and Deployment of a Radar Acoustic Sounding System (RASS) for Wake Vortex Detection

This report describes the activities completed under a grant from the NASA Langley Research Center to develop a plan for the assessment, improvement, and deployment of a Radar Acoustic Sounding System (RASS) for the detection of wake vortices. A brief review is provided of existing alternative instruments for wake vortex detection. This is followed by a review of previous implementations and assessment of a RASS. As a result of this review, it is concluded that the basic features of a RASS have several advantages over other commonly used wake vortex detection and measurement systems. Most important of these features are the good fidelity of the measurements and the potential for all weather operation. To realize the full potential of this remote sensing instrument, a plan for the development of a RASS designed specifically for wake vortex detection and measurement has been prepared. To keep costs to a minimum, this program would start with the development an inexpensive laboratory-scale version of a RASS system. The new instrument would be developed in several stages, each allowing for a critical assessment of the instrument s potential and limitations. The instrument, in its initial stages of development, would be tested in a controlled laboratory environment. A jet vortex simulator, a prototype version of which has already been fabricated, would be interrogated by the RASS system. The details of the laboratory vortex would be measured using a Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) system. In the early development stages, the scattered radar signal would be digitized and the signal post-processed to determine how extensively and accurately the RASS could measure properties of the wake vortex. If the initial tests prove to be successful, a real-time, digital signal processing system would be developed as a component of the RASS system. At each stage of the instrument development and testing, the implications of the scaling required for a full-scale instrument would be considered. It is concluded that a RASS system, developed for the specific application of wake vortex detection, could become part of a robust Aircraft Vortex Spacing System (AVOSS). This system, in turn, could contribute to Reduced Spacing Operations (RSO) in US airports and improvements in Terminal Area productivity (TAP).

Morris, Philip J.↗

NASA NTRS2005

Characterization of Unsteady Flow Structures Around Tandem Cylinders for Component Interaction Studies in Airframe Noise

A joint computational and experimental study has been performed at NASA Langley Research Center to investigate the unsteady flow generated by the components of an aircraft landing gear system. Because the flow field surrounding a full landing gear is so complex, the study was conducted on a simplified geometry consisting of two cylinders in tandem arrangement to isolate and characterize the pertinent flow phenomena. This paper focuses on the experimental effort where surface pressures, 2-D Particle Image Velocimetry, and hot-wire anemometry were used to document the flow interaction around the two cylinders at a Reynolds Number of 1.66 x 10(exp 5), based on cylinder diameter, and cylinder spacing-todiameter ratios, L/D, of 1.435 and 3.70. Transition strips were applied to the forward cylinder to produce a turbulent boundary layer upstream of the flow separation. For these flow conditions and L/D ratios, surface pressures on both the forward and rear cylinders show the effects of L/D on flow symmetry, base pressure, and the location of flow separation and attachment. Mean velocities and instantaneous vorticity obtained from the PIV data are used to examine the flow structure between and aft of the cylinders. Shedding frequencies and spectra obtained using hot-wire anemometry are presented. These results are compared with unsteady, Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes (URANS) computations for the same configuration in a companion paper by Khorrami, Choudhari, Jenkins, and McGinley (2005). The experimental dataset produced in this study provides information to better understand the mechanisms associated with component interaction noise, develop and validate time-accurate computer methods used to calculate the unsteady flow field, and assist in modeling of the radiated noise from landing gears.

Jenkins, Luther N.↗

NASA NTRS2004

Systematic Errors in Stereo PIV When Imaging through a Glass Window

This document assesses the magnitude of velocity measurement errors that may arise when performing stereo particle image velocimetry (PIV) with cameras viewing through thick, refractive window and where the calibration is performed in one plane only. The effect of the window is to introduce a refractive error that increases with window thickness and the camera angle of incidence. The calibration should be performed while viewing through the test section window, otherwise a potentially significant error may be introduced that affects each velocity component differently. However, even when the calibration is performed correctly, another error may arise during the stereo reconstruction if the perspective angle determined for each camera does not account for the displacement of the light rays as they refract through the thick window. Care should be exercised when applying in a single-plane calibration since certain implicit assumptions may in fact require conditions that are extremely difficult to meet in a practical laboratory environment. It is suggested that the effort expended to ensure this accuracy may be better expended in performing a more lengthy volumetric calibration procedure, which does not rely upon the assumptions implicit in the single plane method and avoids the need for the perspective angle to be calculated.

Green, Richard↗

NASA NTRS2004

Starting Vortex Identified as Key to Unsteady Ejector Performance

Unsteady ejectors are currently under investigation for use in some pulse-detonation-engine-based propulsion systems. Experimental measurements made in the past, and recently at the NASA Glenn Research Center, have demonstrated that thrust augmentation can be enhanced considerably when the driver is unsteady. In ejector systems, thrust augmentation is defined as = T(sup Total)/T(sup j), where T(sup Total) is the total thrust of the combined ejector and driving jet and T(sup j) is the thrust due to the driving jet alone. There are three images in this figure, one for each of the named thrust sources. The images are color contours of measured instantaneous vorticity. Each image is an ensemble average of at least 150 phase-locked measurements. The flow is from right to left, and the shape and location of each driver is shown on the far right of each image. The emitted vortex is a clearly defined "doughnut" of highly vortical (spinning) flow. In these planar images, the vortex appears as two distorted circles, one above, and one below the axis of symmetry. Because they are spinning in the opposite direction, the two circles have vorticity of opposite sign and thus are different colors. There is also a rectangle shown in each image. Its width represents the ejector diameter that was found experimentally to yield the highest thrust augmentation. It is apparent that the optimal ejector diameter is that which just "captures" the vortex: that is, the diameter bounding the outermost edge of the vortex structure. The exact mechanism behind the enhanced performance is unclear; however, it is believed to be related to the powerful vortex emitted with each pulse of the unsteady driver. As such, particle imaging velocimetry (PIV) measurements were obtained for three unsteady drivers: a pulsejet, a resonance tube, and a speaker-driven jet. All the drivers were tested with ejectors, and all exhibited performance enhancement over similarly sized steady drivers. The characteristic starting vortices of each driver are shown in these images. The images are color contours of measured instantaneous vorticity. Each image is an ensemble average of at least 150 phase-locked measurements. The flow is from right to left. The shape and location of each driver is shown on the far right of each image. The rectangle shown in each image represents the ejector diameter that was found experimentally to yield the highest thrust augmentation. It is apparent that the optimal ejector diameter is that which just "captures" the vortex: that is, the diameter bounding the outermost edge of the vortex structure. Although not shown, it was observed that the emitted vortex spread as it traveled downstream. The spreading rate for the pulsejet is shown as the dashed lines in the top image. A tapered ejector was fabricated that matched this shape. When tested, the ejector demonstrated superior performance to all those previously tested at Glenn (which were essentially of straight, cylindrical form), achieving a remarkable thrust augmentation of 2. The measured thrust augmentation is shown as a function of ejector length. Also shown are the thrust augmentation values achieved with the straight, cylindrical ejectors of varying diameters. Here, thrust augmentation is plotted as a function of ejector length for several families of ejector diameters. It can be seen that large thrust augmentation values are indeed obtained and that they are sensitive to both ejector length and diameter, particularly the latter. Five curves are shown. Four correspond to straight ejector diameters of 2.2, 3.0, 4.0, and 6.0 in. The fifth curve corresponds to the tapered ejector contoured to bound the emitted vortex. For each curve, there are several data points corresponding to different lengths. The largest value of thrust augmentation is 2.0 for the tapered ejector and 1.81 for the straight ejectors. Regardless of their diameters, all the ejectors trend toward peak performance at a particular leng. That the cross-sectional dimensions of optimal ejectors scaled precisely with the vortex dimensions on three separate pulsed thrust sources demonstrates that the action of the vortex is responsible for the enhanced ejector performance. The result also suggests that, in the absence of a complete understanding of the entrainment and augmentation mechanisms, methods of characterizing starting vortices may be useful for correlating and predicting unsteady ejector performance.

Paxson, Daniel E.↗

NASA NTRS2001

Active Flow Control For Inlets

This presentation describes the progress to date of the Small-Scale Demonstration for the Active Flow Control element of the Propulsion Airframe Integration Project. The goal of this work package is to demonstrate at small scale the ability to improve pressure recovery and distortion in an S-inlet with boundary layer ingestion representative of a Blended Wing Body (BWB) configuration. The effectiveness of several active and passive devices to control flow in an adverse pressure gradient with secondary flows present was evaluated in the Langley 15-Inch Low-Turbulence Tunnel. In this study, passive microvanes, microbumps, and piezoelectric synthetic jets were evaluated for their flow control characteristics using surface static pressures, flow visualization, and 3D Stereo Digital Particle Image Velocimetry. The microvanes imparted a higher level of vorticity to the flow than any of the other devices tested. Alternative actuator concepts are being pursued to support the Small-Scale Demonstration Level 1 milestone in FY03.

Gorton, Susan A.↗