Propulsion System Development for the Iodine Satellite (iSAT) Demonstration Mission
No abstract available
Polzin, K.↗
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Integrated Thermal Analysis of the Iodine Satellite (iSAT) from Preliminary to Critical Design Review
No abstract available
Mauro, Stephanie↗
Iodine Beam Dump Design and Fabrication
During the testing of electric thrusters, high-energy ions impacting the walls of a vacuum chamber can cause corrosion and/or sputtering of the wall materials, which can damage the chamber walls. The sputtering can also introduce the constituent materials of the chamber walls into an experiment, with those materials potentially migrating back to the test article and coating it with contaminants over time. The typical method employed in this situation is to install a beam dump fabricated from materials that have a lower sputter yield, thus reducing the amount of foreign material that could migrate towards the test article or deposit on anything else present in the vacuum facility.
Polzin, K. A.↗
Regenerable biocide delivery unit
A method and apparatus are disclosed for maintaining continuous, long-term microbial control in the water supply for potable, hygiene, and experimental water for space activities, as well as treatment of water supplies on Earth. The water purification is accomplished by introduction of molecular iodine into the water supply to impart a desired iodine residual. The water is passed through an iodinated anion exchange resin bed. The iodine is bound as I-(sub n) at the anion exchange sites and releases I(sub 2) into the water stream flowing through the bed. The concentration of I(sub 2) in the flowing water gradually decreases and, in the prior art, the ion-exchange bed has had to be replaced. In a preferred embodiment, a bed of iodine crystals is provided with connections for flowing water therethrough to produce a concentrated (substantially saturated) aqueous iodine solution which is passed through the iodinated resin bed to recharge the bed with bound iodine. The bed of iodine crystals is connected in parallel with the iodinated resin bed and is activated periodically (e.g., by timer, by measured flow of water, or by iodine residual level) to recharge the bed. Novelty resides in the capability of inexpensively and repeatedly regenerating the ion-exchange bed in situ.
Sauer, Richard L.↗
Biofilm formation and control in a simulated spacecraft water system - Three year results
Two simulated spacecraft water systems are being used to evaluate the effectiveness of iodine for controlling microbial contamination within such systems. An iodine concentration of about 2.0 mg/L is maintained in one system by passing ultrapure water through an iodinated ion exchange resin. Stainless steel coupons with electropolished and mechanically-polished sides are being used to monitor biofilm formation. Results after three years of operation show a single episode of significant bacterial growth in the iodinated system when the iodine level dropped to 1.9 mg/L. This growth was apparently controlled by replacing the iodinated ion exchange resin, thereby increasing the iodine level. The second batch of resin has remained effective in controlling microbial growth down to an iodine level of 1.0 mg/L. SEM indicates that the iodine has impeded but may have not completely eliminated the formation of biofilm. Metals analyses reveal some corrosion in the iodinated system after 3 years of continuous exposure. Significant microbial contamination has been present continuously in a parallel noniodinated system since the third week of operation.
Schultz, John R.↗
Effects of Disinfectants in Water on Mir- and Earth-Grown Wheat
Iodine and silver fluoride are used to purify water onboard U. S. Shuttles and the Russian Space Station, Mir, respectively. In 1995, iodine-treated water, which ranged from 1.0-4.0 mg x kg(exp -1) with a mean of 2.9 mg x kg(exp -1), was applied to Super Dwarf wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) plants when Mir water (grey or tech grade) became scarce. The potential phytotoxicity of iodine on Super Dwarf wheat is an unknown. Since use of iodine-treated water was not part of the experiment, we sought to determine whether it accounted for the subsequent poor wheat seedling growth and floral development onboard the Mir. Super Dwarf wheat seeds were imbibed in iodine or silver fluoride concentrations of 0.0, 1.0, 2.0, 4.0, 8.0 or 16.0 mg x kg(exp -1) for 96 h at 4 C. Five seeds were then planted per 13.3 cm x 13.3 cm pots containing a granular clinoptilolite (Cp) zeolite (1 -2 mm dia.) and placed in Percival(TM) growth chambers programmed for 20/15 C and 18/6 h d/n regime. Plants were irrigated with distilled water, and Iodine- or silver fluoride-treated distilled water. In separate experiments, seeds were treated as above and germination and early seedling growth were determined by examining seedling responses to disinfectants in rolled paper towels. Silver fluoride had very little effect on wheat seed germination. By contrast, iodine reduced germination at all treatment levels. Seedlings exposed to 1.0, 2.0, and 4.0 mg x kg(exp -1) of iodine or silver fluoride levels exhibited a slight stimulation in shoot and root growth. Both disinfectants at 8 and 16 mg x kg(exp -1) showed significantly (p is less than or equal to 0.01) reduced seedling shoot and root lengths and fresh biomasses compared to the control and lower disinfectant levels. The number of spikelets per spike, florets per spikelet, seeds per spike and seed weight were also significantly reduced at the 8 and 16 mg x kg(exp -1) compared to the control and lower levels of disinfectant. Based on these ground-based post-flight analyses, the levels of iodine- and/or silver fluoride-treated water used on Mir-grown plants onboard the Mir did not cause the poor growth and development of the wheat plants.
Campbell, William .F.↗
Disinfection susceptibility of waterborne pseudomonads and Legionellae under simulated space vehicle conditions
The sensitivity of waterborne bacteria from iodinated systems to iodine is examined with particular attention to the recovery of the organisms. The use of iodine as a disinfectant for space-vehicle water is described, and references are made to studies of iodine sensitivity and the relationship between growth rate and iodine sensitivity. Growth following iodination is discussed, and bacterial responses to nutrient restriction are examined for both P aeruginosa and Legionella pneumophila. The low level of organic nutrients in spacecraft water allows the selection for bacteria that are less sensitive to halogens. The formation of biofilms within the water-treatment system enhances bacterial resistance to iodine, and in the case of high-quality water it is shown that sublethal doses of iodine can stimulate bacterial growth. Water treatment should therefore be based on antecedent growth conditions, nutrient limitation, biofilm formation, and ambient selective pressures.
Mcfeters, Gordon A.↗
Density measurement in air with a saturable absorbing seed gas
Resonantly enhanced scattering from the iodine molecule is studied experimentally for the purpose of developing a scheme for the measurement of density in a gas dynamic flow. A study of the spectrum of iodine, the collection of saturation data in iodine, and the development of a mathematical model for correlating saturation effects were pursued for a mixture of 0.3 torr iodine in nitrogen and for mixture pressures up to one atmosphere. For the desired pressure range, saturation effects in iodine were found to be too small to be useful in allowing density measurements to be made. The effects of quenching can be reduced by detuning the exciting laser wavelength from the absorption line center of the iodine line used (resonant Raman scattering). The signal was found to be nearly independent of pressure, for pressures up to one atmosphere, when the excitation beam was detuned 6 GHz from line center for an isolated line in iodine. The signal amplitude was found to be nearly equal to the amplitude for fluorescence at atmospheric pressure, which indicates a density measurement scheme is possible.
Baganoff, D.↗
Removal of Burkholderia cepacia biofilms with oxidants
Iodine is used to disinfect the water system aboard US space shuttles and is the anticipated biocide for the international space station. Water quality on spacecraft must be maintained at the highest possible levels for the safety of the crew. Furthermore, the treatment process used to maintain the quality of water on research must be robust and operate for long periods with minimal crew intervention. Biofilms are recalcitrant and pose a major threat with regard to chronic contamination of spacecraft water systems. We measured the effectiveness of oxidizing biocides on the removal and regrowth of Burkholderia (Pseudomonas) cepacia biofilms. B. cepacia, isolated from the water distribution system of the space shuttle Discovery, was grown in continuous culture to produce a bacterial contamination source for biofilm formation and removal studies. A 10(7) CFU ml-1 B. cepacia suspension, in distilled water, was used to form biofilms on 3000 micrometers2 glass surfaces. Rates of attachment were measured directly with image analysis and were found to be 7.8, 15.2, and 22.8 attachment events h-1 for flow rates of 20.7, 15.2, and 9.8 ml min-1, respectively. After 18 h of formation, the B. cepacia biofilms were challenged with oxidants (ozone, chlorine, and iodine) and the rates of biofilm removal determined by image analysis. Fifty percent of the biofilm material was removed in the first hour of continous treatment with 24 mg l-1 chlorine or 2 mg l-1 ozone. Iodine (48 mg l-1) did not remove any measurable cellular material after 6 h continuous contact. After this first removal of biofilms by the oxidants, the surface was allowed to refoul and was again treated with the biocide. Iodine was the only compound that was unable to remove cellular debris from either primary or secondary biofilms. Moreover, treating primary biofilms with iodine increased the rate of formation of secondary biofilms, from 4.4 to 5.8 attachment events h-1. All the oxidants tested inactivated the B. cepacia associated with both primary and secondary biofilms. The amount of biocide needed to inactivate 50% of planktonic B. cepacia in 10 min at 25 degrees C was 8.4, 0.5, and 0.2 mg l-1 for iodine, chlorine, and ozone, respectively. The data suggest that iodine maynot be the best chemical for treating of biofilms when removal of cellular material is required.
NASA Discipline Environmental Health↗
Biofilm formation and control in a simulated spacecraft water system - Interim results
The ability of iodine to control microbial contamination and biofilm formation in spacecraft water distribution systems is studied using two stainless steel water subsystems. One subsystem has an iodine level of 2.5 mg/L maintained by an iodinated ion-exchange resin. The other subsystem has no iodine added. Stainless steel coupons are removed from each system to monitor biofilm formation. Results from the first six months of operation indicate that 2.5 mg/L of iodine has limited the number of viable bacteria that can be recovered from the iodinated subsystem. Epifluorescence microscopy of the coupons taken from this subsystem, however, indicates some evidence of microbial colonization after 15 weeks of operation. Numerous bacteria have been continually removed from both the water samples and the coupons taken from the noniodinated subsystem after only 3 weeks of operation.
Schultz, John R.↗
Biofilm formation and control in a simulated spacecraft water system - Two-year results
The ability of iodine to maintain microbial water quality in a simulated spacecraft water system is being studied. An iodine level of about 2.0 mg/L is maintained by passing ultrapure influent water through an iodinated ion exchange resin. Six liters are withdrawn daily and the chemical and microbial quality of the water is monitored regularly. Stainless steel coupons used to monitor biofilm formation are being analyzed by culture methods, epifluorescence microscopy, and scanning electron microscopy. Results from the first two years of operation show a single episode of high bacterial colony counts in the iodinated system. This growth was apparently controlled by replacing the iodinated ion exchange resin. Scanning electron microscopy indicates that the iodine has limited but not completely eliminated the formation of biofilm during the first two years of operation. Significant microbial contamination has been present continuously in a parallel noniodinated system since the third week of operation.
Schultz, John R.↗
EPRI-NASA Cooperative Project on Stress Corrosion Cracking of Zircaloys
Examinations of the inside surface of irradiated fuel cladding from two reactors show the Zircaloy cladding is exposed to a number of aggressive substances, among them iodine, cadmium, and iron-contaminated cesium. Iodine-induced stress corrosion cracking (SCC) of well characterized samples of Zircaloy sheet and tubing was studied. Results indicate that a threshold stress must be exceeded for iodine SCC to occur. The existence of a threshold stress indicates that crack formation probably is the key step in iodine SCC. Investigation of the crack formation process showed that the cracks responsible for SCC failure nucleated at locations in the metal surface that contained higher than average concentrations of alloying elements and impurities. A four-stage model of iodine SCC is proposed based on the experimental results and the relevance of the observations to pellet cladding interaction failures is discussed.
Cubicciotti, D.↗
Advanced microbial check valve development
A flight certified assembly identified as a Microbial Check Valve (MCV) was developed and tested. The MCV is a canister packed with an iodinated anionic exchange resin. The device is used to destroy organisms in a water stream as the water passes through the device. The device is equally effective for fluid flow in either direction and its primary method of organism removal is killing rather than filtering. The MCV was successfully developed for the space shuttle to: disinfect fuel cell water; and prevent back contamination of the stored potable water supply. One version of the device consists of a high residual iodinated resin bed that imparts approximately 2 ppm of iodine to the fuel cell water as it flows to the potable water tanks. A second version of the device consists of a low residual iodinated resin bed. One of these low residual beds is located at each use port in the potable water system for the dual purpose of removing some iodine from the potable water as it is dispensed and also to prevent back contamination of the potable supply.
Colombo, G. V.↗
Chemistry and kinetics of I2 loss in urine distillate and humidity condensate
Time-resolved molecular absorption spectrophotometry of iodinated ersatz humidity condensates and iodinated ersatz urine distillates across the UV and visible spectral regions are used to investigate the chemistry and kinetics of I2 loss in urine distillate and humidity condensate. Single contaminant systems at equivalent concentrations are also employed to study rates of iodine. Pseudo-first order rate constants are identified for ersatz contaminant model mixtures and for individual reactive constituents. The second order bimolecular reaction of elemental iodine with formic acid, producing carbon dioxide and iodine anion, is identified as the primary mechanism underlying the decay of residual I2 in ersatz humidity concentrate.
Atwater, James E.↗
Colorimetric Solid Phase Extraction (CSPE): Using Color to Monitor Spacecraft Water Quality
In August 2009, an experimental water quality monitoring kit based on Colorimetric Solid Phase Extraction (CSPE) technology was delivered to the International Space Station (ISS). The kit, called the Colorimetric Water Quality Monitoring Kit (CWQMK), was launched as a Station Development Test Objective (SDTO) experiment to evaluate the suitability of CSPE technology for routine use monitoring water quality on the ISS. CSPE is a sorption-spectrophotometric technique that combines colorimetric reagents, solid-phase extraction, and diffuse reflectance spectroscopy to quantify trace analytes in water samples. In CSPE, a known volume of sample is metered through a membrane disk that has been impregnated with an analyte-specific colorimetric reagent and any additives required to optimize the formation of the analyte-reagent complex. As the sample flows through the membrane disk, the target analyte is selectively extracted, concentrated, and complexed. Formation of the analyte-reagent complex causes a detectable change in the color of the membrane disk that is proportional to the amount of analyte present in the sample. The analyte is then quantified by measuring the color of the membrane disk surface using a hand-held diffuse reflectance spectrophotometer (DRS). The CWQMK provides the capability to measure the ionic silver (Ag +) and molecular iodine (I2) in water samples on-orbit. These analytes were selected for the evaluation of CSPE technology because they are the biocides used in the potable water storage and distribution systems on the ISS. Biocides are added to the potable water systems on spacecraft to inhibit microbial growth. On the United States (US) segment of the ISS molecular iodine serves as the biocide, while the Russian space agency utilizes silver as a biocide in their systems. In both cases, the biocides must be maintained at a level sufficient to control bacterial growth, but low enough to avoid any negative effects on crew health. For example, the presence of high levels of iodine in water can cause taste and odor issues that result in decreased water consumption by the crew. There are also concerns about potential impacts on thyroid function following exposure to high levels of iodine. With silver, there is a risk of developing argyria, an irreversible blue-gray discoloration of the skin, associated with long term consumption of water containing high concentrations of silver. The need to ensure that safe, effective levels of biocide are maintained in the potable water systems on the ISS provides a perfect platform for evaluating the suitability of CSPE technology for in-flight water quality monitoring. This paper provides an overview of CSPE technology and details on the silver and iodine methods used in the CWQMK. It also reports results obtained during in-flight analyses performed with the CWQMK and briefly discusses other potential applications for CSPE technology in both the spacecraft and terrestrial environments.
Gazda, Daniel B.↗
Heavy ion plasma confinement in an RF quadrupole trap
The confinement of an electron free plasma in a pure quadrupole RF electric trap was considered. The ultimate goal was to produce a large density of mercury ions, in order to realize a trapped ion frequency standard using the hyperfine resonance of 199 Hg(+) at 40.7 GHz. An attempt was made to obtain an iodine plasma consisting of equal numbers of positive and negative ions of atomic iodine, the positive iodine ions, being susceptible to charge-exchange with mercury atoms, will produce the desired mercury ions. The experiment showed that the photoproduction of ions pairs in iodine using the necessary UV radiation occurs with a small cross-section, making it difficult to demonstrate the feasibility of space charge neutralization in a quadrupole trap. For this reason it was considered expedient to choose thallium iodide, which has a more favorable absorption spectrum (in the region of 2000 to 2100 A). The results indicate that, although the ionic recombination is a serious limiting factor, a considerable improvement can be obtained in practice for the density of trapped ions, with a considerable advantage in lifetimes for spectroscopic purposes. The ion pair formation by photoionization is briefly reviewed.
Schermann, J.↗