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Evolving Relationship between Humans and Machines

Traditional design typically consists of a master-servant relationship between humans and machines where the human directly controls what the machine will do and when it will do it through an interface. The current archetypical path encompasses moving from informational displays, where the human directly controls the machine based on information displayed, to automation where the human still directs the machine that then caries out the request using predefined set of instructions. Rapid pace of technological advancement makes it possible now, or in a near future, for machines to reach a level of intelligence that enables for systems to execute tasks/missions without predefined specific instructions; thus attaining a status of non- human autonomous agents. Now the course of human-machine interface technology changes from an information system to automation to an autonomous agent—essentially moving from a master-servant relationship to teammates. This paper discusses these changing relationships and challenges associated with progressing from a master-servant relationship with technology to more of an equal teammate. Examples of this progression includes current work encompassing rotorcraft noise minimization for urban air mobility.

Trujillo, Anna C.↗

Simulation and Modeling Concepts for Secure Airspace Operations

With the expected advent of new entrants including Unmanned Aerial Systems, Commercial Launch Vehicles and Urban Air Mobility aircraft, the future United States National Airspace System will have to evolve to include their operations along with the current commercial, general aviation and military operations. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the Federal Aviation Administration are working together to provide a vision for aviation operations in the future—2045 and beyond. Their National Airspace System Horizons initiative seeks to provide stakeholders a list of operational scenarios and technologies, concepts and strategies needed for supporting that vision. They have identified cybersecurity as one of the seven strategic interest areas for realizing this vision. Consequently, NASA is studying cyber resiliency for secure airspace operations. This paper examines cyber security vulnerabilities of Urban Air Mobility operations. While there are many pathways to attack a cyber physical system such as Urban Air Mobility, their effect is expressed in modification or corruption of data/information used for controlling vehicles and making operational decisions. The paper describes cybersecurity technologies of Encryption, Blockchain, Virtual Information Fabric Infrastructure, Trusted Platform Module and Anomaly Detection for protecting the data, thus, improving the cyber resiliency of the current and future air traffic management system.

Cybersecurity↗

Urban Air Mobility Noise: Current Practice, Gaps, and Recommendations

AN Air Mobility (UAM) is an opportunity for aviation to improve transportation systems across the world. Representative UAM vehicle attributes include electrical vertical takeoff and landing (eVTOL) vehicles that can accommodate up to 6 passengers (or equivalent cargo), are possibly autonomous, perform missions of up to 100 nautical miles at altitudes up to 3000 ft. above ground level, have flight speeds up to 200 knots, and weigh between 800 and 8000 pounds. Along with the many anticipated benefits, there will be noise issues that need to be addressed. In 2018, NASA formed an Urban Air Mobility Noise Working Group (UNWG) to assemble noise experts from industry, universities and government agencies to identify, discuss, and address UAM noise issues. This oral presentation summarizes technology gaps and goals associated with four areas of interest: Tools & Technologies, Ground & Flight Testing, Human Response & Metrics, and Regulation & Policy, and is drawn from a draft white paper [1] by the same title. Tools & Technologies include noise prediction tools and noise reduction technologies that have been developed for conventional rotorcraft and fixed-wing vehicles that may be applicable or need to be modified for UAM. Prediction tools need to be able to account for variable speed rotors and other temporal variation effects that impact community noise. A reprioritization of noise sources needs to be done since UAM vehicles include multiple rotors/propellers, often in proximity to one another and/or the airframe, with dynamic transition, and new noise sources such as electric motors or hybrid-electric propulsion. Scattering and propagation methods need to be developed that include the vehicle components and surfaces near a receiver such as buildings and vertiports. Validation databases are needed to quantify prediction uncertainties. Prediction tools used to evaluate community noise will need source models appropriate for a wide range of UAM vehicles. Existing noise reduction technologies need to be evaluated and new noise reduction technologies should be developed in anticipation of future noise requirements. Although the prediction and treatment of interior cabin noise is a secondary goal, it is recognized that new tools and methods may be needed due to the uniqueness of the vehicle design and the presence of both acoustic and structure-borne loads. Ground & Flight Testing has been a critical part of validating noise reduction technologies and verifying that an air vehicle is ready for certification. UAM vehicles introduce new challenges for test procedures such as different source noise directivity, unsteady sources due to maneuvers, and a variety of takeoff and approach trajectories. The operating environment will be more complex than current aircraft with the introduction of vertiports in populated areas with “urban canyons” making reflections an important part of noise prediction and annoyance. It is expected that new test procedures and measurement methods will be necessary. Consideration will need to be given for both piloted and autonomous operations. Human Response & Metrics may be very different for UAM noise compared to current experience with airport noise. Current metrics used to certify rotorcraft and fixed-wing aircraft may not be as useful for evaluating UAM noise. Operations at lower altitudes may influence annoyance. Psychoacoustic and community testing will be needed to quantify annoyance and assess appropriate metrics. In addition to conventional noise level metrics, considerations such as audibility and temporal variation of the sound may be required. Differences between indoor or outdoor exposure will have an impact with dependence on urban and residential flight paths. Aircraft noise is currently regulated at a national level and typically involves partnerships with the industry to establish regulations. Regulators realize that current policies and procedures may not be appropriate for some of the emerging air vehicles and new procedures may be needed to address UAM noise. Development of new policies and procedures are needed so that local communities do not hastily attempt to establish their own restrictions that will both limit growth of the market and create an inconsistent and confusing regulatory environment. To expedite this development, it is crucial early measurement data are shared through partnership arrangements to support both noise certification and noise modeling/noise assessment. At the same time, an effective engagement strategy should be developed to address local community noise issues associated with UAM vehicles and flight operations as they arise.

urban air mobility↗

Obtaining Public Opinion about sUAS Activity in an Urban Environment

The Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS) Traffic Management (UTM) research project has been developing and testing concept ideas for enabling small UAS (sUAS) operations in low altitude airspace (ground to 400 feet). To do this, a series of flight test demonstrations were organized over five years at seven test sites. Technology Capability Level-4 (TCL4), the most complex flight tests, were conducted in Texas, USA, during August 2019. This testing resulted in over 400 data collection flights using eight live rotorcraft, with nine flight crews flying pre-planned scenarios in the urban downtown and waterfront areas of Corpus Christi, Texas. Test scenarios were designed to include a variety of elements, including live and simulated vehicles, and personnel in many different roles, including flight crews and mission personnel. One group of people who did not have a role in the flight tests but will be affected by UAS operations as they become more ubiquitous, are the general public. What do the public think about sUAS operations in urban areas? In order to obtain a reference point that noted the public's view of the operations in the TCL4 demonstration, a short survey was developed and offered to members of the public who wished to comment on the sUAS activities they saw in their city during two weeks in August, 2019.Forty five people completed the online public opinion survey. Participants volunteered to take it, creating a self-selected sample. The survey included eleven questions that asked participants about their level of comfort and concerns with UAS activity; their knowledge of UAS operations; and, whether a traffic management system like UTM would increase their confidence in urban UAS activity. The general public in Corpus Christi showed a good level of knowledge of sUAS regulations, with almost half of their responses to the knowledge portion of the survey being correct. They expressed a moderate level of concern (x = 4.7 out of 7) at urban sUAS activity and, of those who cited a concern, the majority reported this was about privacy (54%), which are all responses in line with those reported in earlier research on public opinion. Views on UTM were mixed, with respondents indicating they thought the introduction of UTM will improve safety somewhat (5.2 out of 7) but it will also increase their concern a little (4.6 out of 7). This would indicate there needs to be more information and educational material about the UTM concept made available to the public with the aim to reduce public concerns about the system.

Caterina Grossi↗

Obtaining Public Opinion About sUAS Activity in an Urban Environment

The Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS) Traffic Management (UTM) research project has been developing and testing concept ideas for enabling small UAS (sUAS) operations in low altitude airspace (ground to 400 feet). To do this, a series of flight test demonstrations were organized over five years at seven test sites. Technology Capability Level-4 (TCL4), the most complex flight tests, were conducted in Texas, USA, during August 2019. This testing resulted in over 400 data collection flights using eight live rotorcraft, with nine flight crews flying pre-planned scenarios in the urban downtown and waterfront areas of Corpus Christi, Texas. Test scenarios were designed to include a variety of elements, including live and simulated vehicles, and personnel in many different roles, including flight crews and mission personnel. One group of people who did not have a role in the flight tests but will be affected by UAS operations as they become more ubiquitous, are the general public. What do the public think about sUAS operations in urban areas? In order to obtain a reference point that noted the public’s view of the operations in the TCL4 demonstration, a short survey was developed and offered to members of the public who wished to comment on the sUAS activities they saw in their city during two weeks in August, 2019. Forty five people completed the online public opinion survey. Participants volunteered to take it, creating a self-selected sample. The survey included eleven questions that asked participants about their level of comfort and concerns with UAS activity; their knowledge of UAS operations; and, whether a traffic management system like UTM would increase their confidence in urban UAS activity. The general public in Corpus Christi showed a good level of knowledge of sUAS regulations, with almost half of their responses to the knowledge portion of the survey being correct. They expressed a moderate level of concern (x = 4.7 out of 7) at urban sUAS activity and, of those who cited a concern, the majority reported this was about privacy (54%), which are all responses in line with those reported in earlier research on public opinion. Views on UTM were mixed, with respondents indicating they thought the introduction of UTM will improve safety somewhat (5.2 out of 7) but it will also increase their concern a little (4.6 out of 7). This would indicate there needs to be more information and educational material about the UTM concept made available to the public with the aim to reduce public concerns about the system.

UTM↗

Large Scale Experiments on Spacecraft Fire Safety

Full scale fire testing complemented by computer modelling has provided significant know how about the risk, prevention and suppression of fire in terrestrial systems (cars, ships, planes, buildings, mines, and tunnels). In comparison, no such testing has been carried out for manned spacecraft due to the complexity, cost and risk associated with operating a long duration fire safety experiment of a relevant size in microgravity. Therefore, there is currently a gap in knowledge of fire behaviour in spacecraft. The entire body of low-gravity fire research has either been conducted in short duration ground-based microgravity facilities or has been limited to very small fuel samples. Still, the work conducted to date has shown that fire behaviour in low-gravity is very different from that in normal-gravity, with differences observed for flammability limits, ignition delay, flame spread behaviour, flame colour and flame structure. As a result, the prediction of the behaviour of fires in reduced gravity is at present not validated. To address this gap in knowledge, a collaborative international project, Spacecraft Fire Safety, has been established with its cornerstone being the development of an experiment (Fire Safety 1) to be conducted on an ISS resupply vehicle, such as the Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV) or Orbital Cygnus after it leaves the ISS and before it enters the atmosphere. A computer modelling effort will complement the experimental effort. Although the experiment will need to meet rigorous safety requirements to ensure the carrier vehicle does not sustain damage, the absence of a crew removes the need for strict containment of combustion products. This will facilitate the possibility of examining fire behaviour on a scale that is relevant to spacecraft fire safety and will provide unique data for fire model validation. This unprecedented opportunity will expand the understanding of the fundamentals of fire behaviour in spacecraft. The experiment is being developed by an international topical team that is collaboratively defining the experiment requirements and performing supporting analysis, experimentation and technology development. This paper presents the objectives, status and concept of this project.

Urban, David L.↗

Large Scale Experiments on Spacecraft Fire Safety

Full scale fire testing complemented by computer modelling has provided significant knowhow about the risk, prevention and suppression of fire in terrestrial systems (cars, ships, planes, buildings, mines, and tunnels). In comparison, no such testing has been carried out for manned spacecraft due to the complexity, cost and risk associated with operating a long duration fire safety experiment of a relevant size in microgravity. Therefore, there is currently a gap in knowledge of fire behaviour in spacecraft. The entire body of low-gravity fire research has either been conducted in short duration ground-based microgravity facilities or has been limited to very small fuel samples. Still, the work conducted to date has shown that fire behaviour in low-gravity is very different from that in normal gravity, with differences observed for flammability limits, ignition delay, flame spread behaviour, flame colour and flame structure. As a result, the prediction of the behaviour of fires in reduced gravity is at present not validated. To address this gap in knowledge, a collaborative international project, Spacecraft Fire Safety, has been established with its cornerstone being the development of an experiment (Fire Safety 1) to be conducted on an ISS resupply vehicle, such as the Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV) or Orbital Cygnus after it leaves the ISS and before it enters the atmosphere. A computer modelling effort will complement the experimental effort. Although the experiment will need to meet rigorous safety requirements to ensure the carrier vehicle does not sustain damage, the absence of a crew removes the need for strict containment of combustion products. This will facilitate the possibility of examining fire behaviour on a scale that is relevant to spacecraft fire safety and will provide unique data for fire model validation. This unprecedented opportunity will expand the understanding of the fundamentals of fire behaviour in spacecraft. The experiment is being developed by an international topical team that is collaboratively defining the experiment requirements and performing supporting analysis, experimentation and technology development. This paper presents the objectives, status and concept of this project.

Urban, David↗

TERSSE: Definition of the Total Earth Resources System for the Shuttle Era. Volume 6: An Early Shuttle Pallet Concept for the Earth Resources Program

A space shuttle sortie mission which can be performed inexpensively in the early shuttle era and which, if the necessary intermediate steps are accomplished provides a major technological advance for the user organization-the U.S. Bureau of Census is described. The orbital configuration created for the Urban Land Use/1980 Census mission is illustrated including sensors and ground support equipment along with the information flow for the mission. Factors discussed include: specific Census Bureau functions to be supported by the mission; hardware and flight operations necessary for implementation of the mission; and integration of the TERSSE pallet into a shuttle mission.

Source record↗

Acoustics Technical Working Group History

A brief history of NASA's Acoustics Technical Working Group (TWG) is given. The TWG dates back to 1992 and was formed to plan the Advanced Subsonic Technology (AST) Noise Reduction Program. It has endured several program, project and organizational changes. Today a new work area called "Urban Air Mobility" is being proposed and the TWG will have an opportunity to discuss its roles in continuing to coordinate NASA's acoustics research.

Acoustics↗

Wind Tunnel Testing of Static Aerodynamic and Power Consumption Characteristics of an Octocopter

The introduction of multirotor unmanned aircraft systems (UAS) in low-altitude airspace poses significant safety challenges. Further development of advanced aviation systems is needed to realize the full potential of UAS applications, particularly for urban and beyond visual line-of-sight (BVLOS) operations. The NASA System Wide Safety (SWS) project is developing key technologies to mitigate future airspace safety risks involving autonomous aircraft operation in densely populated areas. An important part of these technologies requires flight dynamics and performance models to assess feasible trajectories, power consumption requirements, and operational envelope limitations. To support these efforts, this research seeks to improve the accuracy of multirotor aerodynamic models and investigate stability characteristics relevant to flight safety. This paper presents a recent study of an octocopter vehicle using the NASA Langley 12-Foot Low-Speed Tunnel (LST). Results from isolated-airframe (no propellers) and powered-airframe tests are presented. A one-factor-at-a-time (OFAT) approach was used to explore the effect of propeller advance ratio and vehicle angle of attack on vehicle forces, moments, and power consumption. The results show nonlinear aerodynamic behavior and indicate regions where aerodynamic interaction effects may be significant.

George V. Altamirano↗

Psychoacoustic Measures for UAM noise in the Context of Ambient Sound

The noise component of future aircraft and operations from Urban Air Mobility (UAM) vehicles is widely recognized as a challenge to community acceptance. NASA’s RVLT (Revolutionary Vertical Lift Technology) program is currently supporting research in the area of human response and psychoacoustics in an effort to augment current metrics for traditional aircraft. This talk will review current work at NASA Ames’ Human Systems Integration Division to evaluate detection, annoyance, and acceptability of UAM sound, in the context of expected ambient sound conditions.

aircraft noise disturbance↗

Applications of Advanced Perception and Distributed Sensing Technology towards Autonomous Advanced Air Mobility Applications

Emerging concepts for Advanced Air Mobility (AAM) envisions responsive air transportation capabilities that can safely move people and cargo between places - including local, regional, intraregional, and urban - previously not served or underserved by aviation. Expanding traditional aviation services to these environments, particularly when autonomous operations are involved, face a number of challenges that will require advances beyond the state-of-the-art techniques for airborne sensing and perception, which goes beyond the limits of scalability and applicability of the current air transportation system infrastructure. Additionally, the emerging field of distributed sensing and ‘smart spaces’– where sensing, processing, communication, and actuation are embedded in the environment in which agents are acting and can be exploited by the agents through real-time wireless communication – may provide realistic near-time solutions to limitations imposed by traditional aviation techniques. This paper outlines the needs, challenges, and opportunities for advanced perception and distributed sensing techniques to meet the emerging needs for advanced AAM operations in the national airspace. A general roadmap for research, development, and maturation of perception and distributed sensing (P&DS) technologies is proposed to guide future development through verification, validation, certification into airborne systems. Through this analysis of challenges and the proposed roadmap for technology maturation, we hope to accelerate transition of advanced research techniques from other disciplines into this domain.

Autonomy↗

Immutable Secure Data Exchange and Storage for Urban Air Mobility Environments

The Urban Air Mobility (UAM) environment is derived from the Unmanned Traffic Management (UTM) concept of operations. Within the environment, UAM operators work independently to manage aerial vehicles in the urban environment. Providers of Services (PSU), UAM operators, and Supplemental Data Service Providers provide services to support flight operations within the UAM environment. The intent of this work is to leverage a permissioned blockchain approach, to, simulate secure data exchange and storage for UAM environments. Blockchain technologies can be used for identity management of vehicles, people, and systems.

Blockchain↗

NASA and the United States educational system - Outreach programs in aeronautics, space science, and technology

The role of NASA in developing a well-educated American work force is addressed. NASA educational programs aimed at precollege students are examined, including the NASA Spacemobile, Urban Community Enrichment Program, and Summer High School Apprenticeship Program. NASA workshops and programs aimed at helping teachers develop classroom curriculum materials are described. Programs aimed at college and graduate-level students are considered along with coordination efforts with other federal agencies and with corporations.

Owens, Frank C.↗

Simulation and Modeling Concepts for Secure Airspace Operations

This paper examines cyber security vulnerabilities of Urban Air Mobility operations. With the expected advent of new entrants including Unmanned Aerial Systems, Commercial Launch Vehicles and Urban Air Mobility aircraft, the future United States National Airspace System will have to evolve to include their operations along with the current commercial, general aviation and military operations. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the Federal Aviation Administration are working together to provide a vision for aviation operations in the future—2045 and beyond. Their National Airspace System Horizons initiative seeks to provide stakeholders a list of operational scenarios and technologies, concepts and strategies needed for supporting that vision. They have identified cybersecurity as one of the seven strategic interest areas for realizing this vision. Consequently, NASA is studying cyber resiliency for secure airspace operations. While there are many pathways to attack a cyber physical system such as Urban Air Mobility, their effect is expressed in modification or corruption of data/information used for controlling vehicles and making operational decisions. The paper describes cybersecurity technologies of Encryption, Blockchain, Virtual Information Fabric Infrastructure, Trusted Platform Module and Anomaly Detection for protecting the data, and the cyber resiliency of the current and future air traffic management system.

Urban Air Mobility↗

Simulation and Modeling Concepts for Secure Airspace Operations

This paper examines cyber security vulnerabilities of Urban Air Mobility operations. With the expected advent of new entrants including Unmanned Aerial Systems, Commercial Launch Vehicles and Urban Air Mobility aircraft, the future United States National Airspace System will have to evolve to include their operations along with the current commercial, general aviation and military operations. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the Federal Aviation Administration are working together to provide a vision for aviation operations in the future—2045 and beyond. Their National Airspace System Horizons initiative seeks to provide stakeholders a list of operational scenarios and technologies, concepts and strategies needed for supporting that vision. They have identified cybersecurity as one of the seven strategic interest areas for realizing this vision. Consequently, NASA is studying cyber resiliency for secure airspace operations. While there are many pathways to attack a cyber physical system such as Urban Air Mobility, their effect is expressed in modification or corruption of data/information used for controlling vehicles and making operational decisions. The paper describes cybersecurity technologies of Encryption, Blockchain, Virtual Information Fabric Infrastructure, Trusted Platform Module and Anomaly Detection for protecting the data, and the cyber resiliency of the current and future air traffic management system.

Urban Air Mobility↗

Simulated Evaluation of Strategic Conflict Management Capabilities for Urban Air Mobility Operations

Urban Air Mobility (UAM) is a new air transportation service concept to carry passengers or cargo in metropolitan areas, leveraged by innovative aircraft and automation technologies. NASA has conducted a series of simulations to evaluate the UAM concept of operations and inform the development of airspace procedures and services for UAM operations. The latest set of simulations called “X5” were conducted to test a Provider of Services for UAM (PSU) prototype that NASA developed for UAM flight planning, strategic conflict management support, and data exchange between UAM operators. In these simulations, two strategic conflict management capabilities, Demand-Capacity Balancing (DCB) and Sequencing and Scheduling (S&S), were further investigated. This paper describes the system architecture designed for the X5 simulation activities, the sequence diagram for strategic conflict management, and the simulation environment in the Dallas/Fort Worth urban area. The simulation results based on several system performance metrics for evaluation show that a sequential application of DCB and S&S effectively works to distribute traffic demand and meet sequencing and spacing criteria by assigning ground delays, compared to the DCB only and S&S only cases.

Urban Air Mobility, Strategic Conflict Management,↗

Simulated Evaluation of Strategic Conflict Management Capabilities for Urban Air Mobility Operations

Urban Air Mobility (UAM) is a new air transportation service concept to carry passengers or cargo in metropolitan areas, leveraged by innovative aircraft and automation technologies. NASA has conducted a series of simulations to evaluate the UAM concept of operations and inform the development of airspace procedures and services for UAM operations. The latest set of simulations called “X5” were conducted to test a Provider of Services for UAM (PSU) prototype that NASA developed for UAM flight planning, strategic conflict management support, and data exchange between UAM operators. In these simulations, two strategic conflict management capabilities, Demand-Capacity Balancing (DCB) and Sequencing and Scheduling (S&S), were further investigated. This paper describes the system architecture designed for the X5 simulation activities, the sequence diagram for strategic conflict management, and the simulation environment in the Dallas/Fort Worth urban area. The simulation results based on several system performance metrics for evaluation show that a sequential application of DCB and S&S effectively works to distribute traffic demand and meet sequencing and spacing criteria by assigning ground delays, compared to the DCB only and S&S only cases.

Simulation↗