SEARCH · Search NASA
Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.
Quote a phrase for an exact phrase match. Source license links do not imply unrestricted reuse.
We report nitrogen and xenon isotopic signatures in separated metal and non-magnetic phases of a catastrophically degassed L5 chondrite and discuss implications for the collisional event and the impactor. Additional information is contained in the original extended abstract.
To survive in deep subsurface environments autolithotrophic microbial communities require a sustainable food supply. One possible source is H2 which forms when H2O reacts with ferrous iron at rock surfaces or mineral grain boundaries to produce H2 plus ferric iron. The amount of H2 that can be supplied in this way, however, is relatively small and may not last for more than a few hundred or thousand years. A much larger reservoir of H2 exists in the rocks, inside mineral grains, arising from an as yet little-known redox conversion that affects OH- in nominally anhydrous minerals. These OH- represent small amounts of "water" that become incorporated during crystallization in H2O-laden environments. A corollary of the H2 formation from OH- is the formation of peroxy, an oxidized form of oxygen. While the peroxy become part of the mineral structure, the H2 molecules are diffusively mobile and can escape from within the mineral grains, entering the intergranular space. Assuming cautiously realistic number densities of OH- undergoing the in situ redox conversion to H2 plus peroxy, a 10 km deep rock column is expected to contain enough H2 to allow for a constant degassing rate of 50-100 nmole H2 per day per sq cm over 30 million years.
Knowledge of the oxidation state of a magma is critical as it is one of the parameters which controls the nature and composition of the resulting crystals. In terrestrial magmatic systems, oxygen fugacity (fo2) is known to vary by over nine orders of magnitude. With variations of this magnitude, understanding the compositional differences, phase changes, and crystallization sequence variations, caused by the magma fo2, is essential in deciphering the origin of all igneous rocks. Magmatic oxidation state is of great importance in that it reflects the degree of oxidation of the source region and can provide insight into magmatic processes, such as metasomatism, degassing, and assimilation, which may have changed them. Carmichael [1991] argues that most magmas are unlikely to have their redox states altered from those of their source region. This assumption allows for estimation of the oxidation state of planetary interiors. Conversely, it is known that the fo2 of the magma can be affected by other processes, which occur outside of the source region and therefore, the oxidation state may record those too. Processes which could overprint source region fugacities include melt dehydrogenation or other volatile loss, water or melt infiltration, or assimilation of oxidized or reduced wallrock. Understanding which of these processes is responsible for the redox state of a magma can provide crucial information regarding igneous processes and other forces active in the region. The composition of the SNC basalts and their widely varying proposed oxidation states raise some interesting questions. Do the SNC meteorites have an oxidized or reduced signature? What was the oxygen fugacity of the SNC source region at the time of melt generation? Is the fugacity calculated for the various SNC samples the fugacity of the magma source region or was it overprinted by later events? Are there different oxidation states in the Martian interior or a single one? This proposal seeks to address all of these questions.
Residual gases present in closed ampoules may affect different crystal growth processes. Their presence may affect techniques requiring low pressures and affect the crystal quality in different ways. For that reason a good understanding and control of formation of residual gases may be important for an optimum design and meaningful interpretation of crystal growth experiments. Our extensive experimental and theoretical study includes degassing of silica glass and generation of gases from various source materials. Different materials processing conditions, like outgassing under vacuum, annealing in hydrogen, resublimation, different material preparation procedures, multiple annealings, different processing times, and others were applied and their effect on the amount and composition of gas were analyzed. The experimental results were interpreted based on theoretical calculations on diffusion in silica glass and source materials and thermochemistry of the system. Procedures for a reduction of the amount of gas are also discussed.
Residual gases present in closed ampoules may affect different crystal growth processes. That seems to be particularly true under microgravity conditions where, due to weightlessness of the melt, the gases may lead to detached solidification and/or formation of voids and bubbles, as observed in the past. For that reason a good understanding and control of formation of residual gases is important for an optimum design and meaningful interpretation of crystal growth experiments. Our extensive experimental and theoretical studies of the subject, summarized in this paper, include degassing of silica glass and generation of gases from different source materials. Different materials processing conditions, like outgassing under vacuum, annealing in hydrogen, resublimation, different material preparation procedures, multiple annealings, different processing times, and others were applied and their effect on the amount and composition of gas were analyzed. The experimental results were interpreted based on theoretical calculations on diffusion in silica glass and source materials and thermochemistry of the system. Procedures for a reduction of the amount of gas are also discussed.
Chondrites are categorized into different groups by several properties, including the metal-to-silicate ratio. Various processes have been suggested to produce distinct metal/silicate ratios, some based on sorting in the early solar nebular and others occurring after accretion on the parent body. Huang et al. suggested that a weak gravitational field accompanied by degassing, could result in metal/silicate separation on parent bodies. We suggest that asteroids were volatile-rich, at least early in their histories. Spectroscopic evidence from asteroid surfaces indicates that one-third of all asteroids maybe rich in clays and hydrated minerals, similar to carbonaceous chondrites. Internal and/or external heating could have caused volatiles to evaporate and pass through a surface dust layer. Spacecraft images of asteroids show they have a thick regoliths. Housen, and Asphaug and Nolan proposed that even a 10 km diameter asteroid could potentially have a significant regolith. Grain size and grain density sorting could occur in the unconsolidated layer by the process known as fluidization. This process occurs when an upward stream of gas is passed through a bed of particles which are lifted against a gravitational force. Fluidization is commonly used commercially to sort particulates. This type of behavior is based upon the bed, as a whole, and differs from aerodynamic sorting. Two sets of reduced gravity experiments were conducted during parabolic flights aboard NASA's KC-135 aircraft. The first experiment employed 310 tubes of 2.5 cm diameter, containing mixtures of sand and metal grains. A gas source was used to fluidize the mixture at reduced gravity conditions and mixtures were analyzed after the flight. However, this experiment did not allow a description of the fluidization as a function of gravity. A second experiment was conducted on the KC-135 aircraft in the summer of 2001, consisting of two Plexiglas cylinders containing a metal/silicate mixture, and video cameras to record the experiment on tape. Here we summarize this experiment and discusses the implications for metalsilicate separation on asteroid bodies.
Comets and asteroids colliding with the terrestrial planets can deliver volatiles and organic or prebiotic compounds to the planets, thereby depositing on the planets the fundamental building-blocks for life. The inner planets contain heavier and cosmically less abundant elements in an iron-silicate matrix than the giant planets. This can be caused by the following three mechanisms: uneven fractionation and condensation in the accretionary disk; unequal degree of degassing of the composed matter; and heterogeneous accretion. Asteroid-size bodies consisting of the last low-temperature condensates (similar to most primitive chondritic meteorites, and enriched in hydrated silicates and trapped gases) are believed to have fallen onto the inner planets during the process of the giant planets formation. The relative contribution of either endogenous (i.e. outgassing) or exogenous (i.e. asteroid/comet collisions) sources is difficult to assess, although it is constrained by the pattern of noble gas abundances in the planetary atmospheres.
The amount of water in martian magmas has significant ramifications for the martian atmosphere-hydrosphere cycle. Large D-enrichments have been observed in kaersutitic amphiboles in Zagami, Chassigny and Shergotty meteorites (delta-D values up to 4400 per mil) suggesting that substantial amounts of H escaped Mars in its past. Furthermore, martian meteorites with inclusions of biotite and apatite imply possible origins in a hydrous mantle. However, whether martian magmas ever possessed considerable proportions of water remains controversial and unclear. The H-content of mica and amphibole melt inclusions has been found to be low, while bulk-rock H2O content is also low ranging from 0.013 to 0.035 wt. % in Shergotty. Hydrous martian magmas were considered responsible for light lithophile element (LLE) zoning patterns observed in Nakhlite and Shergottite pyroxenes. Since LLEs, such as Li and B, partition into aqueous fluids at temperatures greater than 350 C, workers interpreted Li-B depletions in pyroxene rims as evidence that supercritical fluid exsolution occurred during magma degassing. In that many martian basalts experienced substantial shock (15-45 GPa) it is possible that the magmatic volatile record preserved in martian basalts has been disturbed. Previous shock experiments suggest that shock processes may effect water content and H/D. To better understand the possible effects of shock on this volatile record, we are studying the redistribution of volatile elements in naturally and experimentally shocked basalts. Here, we report the initial results from shocked basalts associated with the Lonar Crater, India and an experimentally shocked lunar basalt.
Measurements of dissolved N2, O2, Ar, CO2, and CH4 were made in perennially ice-covered Lake Hoare. Results confirm previous reports that O2 concentrations in the upper water column exceed atmospheric equilibrium and that N2 and Ar are supersaturated throughout the water column. The mean supersaturation of N2 was found to be 2.0 (+/- 0.37) and Ar was 3.8 (+/- 1.1). The ratios of N2/Ar (20.3 +/- 13.8), and O2/Ar (22.5 +/- 4.0) at the ice-water interface are consistent with those previously measured, suggesting that bubble formation is the main process for removing gas from the lake. However, the saturations of N2 and Ar greatly exceed those previously predicted for degassing by bubble formation only at the ice-water interface. The data support the hypothesis that removal of gas by bubbles occurs in the water column to a depth of 11 m in Lake Hoare. CO2 concentration increases from near zero at the ice-water interface to 80-100 times saturation at and below the chemocline at c. 28 m. There is considerable variability in the gas concentrations throughout the water column; samples separated in depth by one metre may vary by more than 50% in gas content. It is likely that this phenomenon results from the lack of turbulent mixing in the water column. Methane (c. 2 micrograms l-1) was detected below the chemocline and immediately above the sediment/water interface at a depth of 30 m. Samples from lakes Vanda, Joyce, and Miers, also show supersaturations of O2, N2, and Ar at levels similar to levels found in Lake Hoare.
It is often argued that substantially more carbon dioxide and water were degassed from the martian interior than can be found at present in the atmosphere, polar caps and regolith. Calculations have shown that atmospheric escape cannot account for all of the missing volatiles. Suggestions that carbon dioxide is stored as marine or lacustrine deposits, are challenged by Earth-based and spacecraft remote-sensing data. Moreover, recent modelling of the martian atmosphere suggests that rainfall or open bodies of water are in any case unlikely to have persisted for extended periods of time. Hydrothermal carbonates therefore provide a possible solution to this dilemma. Using an accessible terrestrial system (Iceland) as a guide to the underlying processes, and a host rock composition inferred from the least-altered martian meteorite, we present a geochemical model for the formation of carbonates in possible martian hydrothermal systems. Our results suggest that an extensive reservoir of carbonate minerals--equivalent to an atmospheric pressure of carbon dioxide of at least one bar--could have been sequestered beneath the surface by widespread hydrothermal activity in the martian past.
Lunar meteorite Yamato (Y) 86032 is a feldspathic breccia containing anorthositic fragments similar to ferroan anorthosite (FAN) clasts commonly found in Apollo 16 highland rocks. Previous Ar-39-Ar-40 analyses of a grey anorthositic clast (,116 GC) in Y86032 revealed an old degassing age of 4.39 plus or minus 0.06 Ga, which is as old as crystallization ages of some FANs e.g. 60025, 67016 and 67215, as determined by the more robust Sm-Nd radiometric method. The calculated initial Nd value for the clast is -1.8 plus or minus 0.3 for the age. The old age and its negative initial Nd value indicate that Y86032 contains components of the primitive lunar crust related to the lunar magma ocean (LMO). We undertook further Rb-Sr and Sm-Nd isotopic investigation of three major lithologies in the meteorite as described in the mineralogical and petrological studies. Ar-39-Ar-40 analyses of these component lithologies are presented in this volume. Also, we analyzed two Apollo 16 FANs, 60025 and 67075, to compare their ages and isotopic signatures to Y86032. Y86032 probably came from a feldspathic highland terrane (FHT) on the northern farside highlands, a locality not sampled by the Apollo and Luna missions.
Absorbing the electromagnetic radiation in several regions of the solar spectrum, CO2 plays an important role in the Earth radiation budget since it produces the greenhouse effect. Many natural processes in the Earth s system add and remove carbon dioxide. Overall, measurements of atmospheric carbon dioxide at different sites around the world show an increased carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere. At Mauna Loa Observatory (Hawaii) the measured carbon dioxide increased from 315 to 365 ppm, in the period 1958 2000 [Keeling et al., 2001]. While at the large scale, the relationship between CO2 increase and global warming is established [IPCC, 1996], at the local scale, many studies are still needed to understand regional and local sources of carbon dioxide, such as volcanoes. The volcanic areas are particularly rich in carbon dioxide; this is due to magma degassing in the summit craters region of active volcanoes, and to the presence of fractures and active faults [Giammanco et al., 1998]. Several studies estimate a global flux of volcanic CO2 (34+/-24)10(exp 6) tons/day from effusive volcanic emissions, such as the tropospheric volcanic plume (Table 1) [McClelland et al., 1989]. Plumes are a turbulent mixture of gases, solid particles and liquid droplets, emitted continuously at high temperature from summit craters, fumarolic fields or during eruptive episodes. Inside the plume, water vapour represents 70 90% of the volcanic gases. The main gaseous components are CO2, SO2, HCl, H2, H2S, HF, CO, N2 and CH4. Other plume components are volcanic ash, aqueous and acid droplets and solid sulphur-derived particles [Sparks et al., 1997]. Volcanic gases and aerosols are evidences of volcanic activity [Spinetti et al., 2003] and they have important climatic and environmental effects [Fiocco et al., 1994]. For example, Etna volcano is one of the world s major volcanic gas sources [Allard et al., 1991]. New studies on volcanic gaseous emissions have pointed out that a variation of the gas ratio CO2/SO2 is related to eruptive episodes [Caltabiano et al., 1994]. However, measurements and monitoring of volcanic carbon dioxide are difficult and often hazardous, due to the high background presence of atmospheric CO2 and the inaccessibility of volcanic sites. Hyperspectral remote sensing is a suitable technique to overcome the difficulties of ground measurement. It permits a rapid, comprehensive view of volcanic plumes and their evolution over time, detection of all gases with absorption molecular lines within the sensor s multispectral range and, in general, measurement of all the volatile components evolving from craters. The molecular and particle plume components scatter and absorb incident solar radiation. The integral of the radiation difference composes the signal measured by the remote spectrometer. The inversion technique consists of retrieving the plume component concentrations, hence decomposing the signal into the different contributions. The accuracy of remote sensing techniques depends primarily on the sensor capability and sensitivity.
This one-year project (which included one-year no-cost tension) focused on the evolution of the summit areas of Martian volcanoes. It extended the studies conducted under an earlier MDAP project (Grant NAG5-9576, Principal Investigator P. Mouginis- Mark). By using data collected from the Mars Orbiter Camera (MOC), Thermal Emission Imaging System (THEMIS), and the Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter (MOLA) instruments, we tried to better understand the diversity of constructional volcanism on Mars, and hence further understand the eruption processes. By inspecting THEMIS and MOC data, we explored the following four questions: (1) Where might near-surface volatiles have been released at the summits of the Tharsis volcanoes? Is the trapping and subsequent remobilization of degassed volatiles [Scott and Wilson, 19991 adequate to produce eruptions responsible for extensive deposits such as the ones identified on Arsia Mons [Mouginis-Mark, 2002]? To answer this question, we investigated the diversity of eruption styles by studying the summit areas of Arsia, Pavonis and Ascraeus Montes. (2) What are the geomorphic characteristics of the valley system on Hecates Tholus, a volcano that we have previously proposed experienced explosive activity [Mouginis-Murk et al., 1982]? Our inspection of THEMIS data suggests that water release on the volcano took place over an extended period of time, suggesting that hydrothermal activity may have taken place here. (3) How similar are the collapse processes observed at Martian and terrestrial calderas? New THEMIS data provide a more complete view of the entire Olympus Mons caldera, thereby enabling the comparison with the collapse features at Masaya volcano, Nicaragua, to be investigated. (4) What can we learn about the emplacement of long lava flows in the lava plains of Eastern Tharsis? The result of this work provided a greater understanding of the temporal and spatial variations in the eruptive history of volcanoes on Mars, and the influence of the volatiles within the top few kilometers of the volcanic edifice. This relationship in turn pertains to the availability of volatiles (both juvenile magmatic volatiles and ground water contained within the near-surface rocks) and to magma supply rates at appreciable distances (tens to hundreds of kilometers) from the centers of volcanoes. Explosive volcanism on Mars, a major factor in the release of water at the surface, may have been driven not only by volatiles within the parental melt, but also by magma encountering water or ice at shallow depth within the volcano [Mouginis-Mark et al., 1982, 1988; Crown and Greeley, 1993; Robinson et al., 19931.
The primary focus of this project has been on the development of techniques to study the thermal and gas output of volcanoes, and to explore our options for the collection of vegetation and soil data to enable us to assess the impact of this volcanic activity on the environment. We originally selected several volcanoes that have persistent gas emissions and/or magma production. The investigation took an integrated look at the environmental effects of a volcano. Through their persistent activity, basaltic volcanoes such as Kilauea (Hawaii) and Masaya (Nicaragua) contribute significant amounts of sulfur dioxide and other gases to the lower atmosphere. Although primarily local rather than regional in its impact, the continuous nature of these eruptions means that they can have a major impact on the troposphere for years to decades. Since mid-1986, Kilauea has emitted about 2,000 tonnes of sulfur dioxide per day, while between 1995 and 2000 Masaya has emotted about 1,000 to 1,500 tonnes per day (Duffel1 et al., 2001; Delmelle et al., 2002; Sutton and Elias, 2002). These emissions have a significant effect on the local environment. The volcanic smog ("vog" ) that is produced affects the health of local residents, impacts the local ecology via acid rain deposition and the generation of acidic soils, and is a concern to local air traffic due to reduced visibility. Much of the work that was conducted under this NASA project was focused on the development of field validation techniques of volcano degassing and thermal output that could then be correlated with satellite observations. In this way, we strove to develop methods by which not only our study volcanoes, but also volcanoes in general worldwide (Wright and Flynn, 2004; Wright et al., 2004). Thus volcanoes could be routinely monitored for their effects on the environment. The selected volcanoes were: Kilauea (Hawaii; 19.425 N, 155.292 W); Masaya (Nicaragua; 11.984 N, 86.161 W); and Pods (Costa Rica; 10.2OoN, 84.233 W).
Studies of several samples of the large Caddo County IAB iron meteorite reveal andesitic material, enriched in Si, Na, Al and Ca, which is essentially unique among meteorites. This material is believed to have formed from a chondritic source by partial melting and to have further segregated by grain coarsening. Such an origin implies extended metamorphism of the IAB parent body. New Ar-39-Ar-40 ages for silicate from three different Caddo samples are consistent with a common age of 4.50-4.51 Gyr ago. Less well defined Ar-Ar degassing ages for inclusions from two other IABs, EET8333 and Udei Station, are approx.4.32 Gyr, whereas the age for Campo del Cielo varies considerably over approx.3.23-4.56 Gyr. New I-129-Xe-129 ages for Caddo County and EET8333 are 4561.9+/-0.1 Myr and 4560- 4563 Myr, respectively, relative to an age of 4566 Myr for Shallowater. Considering all reported Ar-Ar ages for IABs and related winonaites, the range is approx.4.32-4.53 Gyr, but several IABs give similar Ar ages of 4.50-4.52 Gyr. We interpret these older ages to represent cooling after the time of last significant metamorphism on the parent body, and the younger ages to represent later Ar-40 diffusion loss. These older Ar-Ar ages are similar to Sm-Nd and Rb-Sr isochron ages reported in the literature for Caddo County. Considering the possibility that IAB parent body formation was followed by impact disruption, reassembly, and metamorphism (e.g., Benedix et al. 2000), the time of the post-assembly metamorphism may have been as late as approx.4.53 Gyr ago. However, precise I-Xe ages reported for some IABs define a range of ages of approx.4560 to approx.4576 Myr. The older I-Xe ages exceed the oldest precise radiometric ages of meteorites, appear unrealistic, and s,uggest a bias in the calibration of all I-Xe ages. But even with such a bias, the I-Xe ages of IABs cannot easily be reconciled with the much younger Ar-Ar and Sm-Nd ages and with cooling rates deduced from Ni concentration profiles in IAB metal (Herpfer et al., 1994). An explanation for the difference in radiometric ages of IABs may reside in combinations of the following: a) I-Xe ages have very high closure temperatures and were not reset during metamorphism; b) a bias exists in the K-40 decay constants; c) the reported Sm-Nd and Rb-Sr ages for Caddo are in error by amounts equal to or exceeding their reported 2-sigma uncertainties; and 4) the IAB parent body may have experienced a mild metamorphism approx.30 Myr after the initial heating that produced differentiation of Caddo silicate and mixing of silicate and metal.
Studies of several samples of the large Caddo County IAB iron meteorite reveal andesitic material, enriched in Si, Nay Al and Ca, which is essentially unique among meteorites. This material is believed to have formed from a chondritic source by partial melting and to have further segregated by grain coarsening. Such an origin implies extended metamorphism of the IAB parent body. New Ar-39-Ar-40 ages for silicate from three different Caddo samples are consistent with a common age of 4.50- 4.51 Gyr ago. Less well defined Ar-Ar degassing ages for inclusions from two other IABs, EET8333 and Udei Station, are approx.4.32 Gyr, whereas the age for Campo del Cielo varies considerably over approx.3.23-4.56 Gyr. New I-129-Xe-129 ages for Caddo County and EET8333 are 4561.9 +/-0.1 Myr and 4560-4563 Myr, respectively, relative to an age of 4566 Myr for Shallowater. Considering all reported Ar-Ar ages for IABs and related winonaites, the range is approx.4.32-4.53 Gyr, but several IABs give similar Ar ages of 4.50-4.52 Gyr. We interpret these older ages to represent cooling after the time of last significant metamorphism on the parent body, and the younger ages to represent later Ar-40 diffusion loss. These older Ar-Ar ages are similar to Sm-Nd and Rb-Sr isochron ages reported in the literature for Caddo County. Considering the possibility that IAB parent body formation was followed by impact disruption, reassembly, and metamorphism (e.g., Benedix et al. 2000), the time of the post-assembly metamorphism may have been as late as approx.4.53 Gyr ago. However, precise I-Xe ages reported for some IABs define a range of ages of approx.4560 to approx.4576 My. The older I-Xe ages exceed the oldest precise radiometric ages of meteorites, appear unrealistic, and suggest a bias in the calibration of all I-Xe ages. But even with such a bias, the I-Xe ages of IABs cannot easily be reconciled with the much younger Ar-Ar and Sm-Nd ages and with cooling rates deduced from Ni concentration profiles in IAB metal (Herpfer et al., 1994). An explanation for the difference in radiometric ages of IABs may reside in combinations of the following: a) I-Xe ages have very high closure temperatures and were not reset during metamorphism; b) a bias exists in the K-40 decay constants; c) the reported Sm-Nd and Rb-Sr ages for Caddo are in error by amounts equal to or exceeding their reported 2-sigma uncertainties; and 4) the IAB parent body may have experienced a mild metamorphism approx.30 Myr after the initial heating that produced differentiation of Caddo silicate and mixing of silicate and metal. 129 129
Studies of several samples of the large Caddo County IAB iron meteorite reveal andesitic material, enriched in Si, Na, Al and Ca which is essentially unique among meteorites. This material is believed to have formed from a chondritic source by partial melting and to have further segregated by grain coarsening. Such an origin implies extended metamorphism of the IAB parent body. New Ar-39- Ar-40 ages for silicate from three different Caddo samples are consistent with a common age of 4.50- 4.51 Gyr ago. Less well defined Ar-Ar degassing ages for inclusions from two other IABs, EET8333 and Udei Station, are approx. 4.32 Gyr, whereas the age for Campo del Cielo varies considerably over approx. 3.23-4.56 Gyr. New I-129-Xe-129 ges for Caddo County and EET8333 are 4561.9 plus or minus 0.1 Myr and 4560-4563 Myr, respectively, relative to an age of 4566 Myr for Shallowater. Considering all reported Ar-Ar ages for IABs and related winonaites, the range is approx. 4.32-4.53 Gyr, but several IABs give similar Ar ages of 4.50-4.52 Gyr. We interpret these older ages to represent cooling after the time of last significant metamorphism on the parent body, and the younger ages to represent later 40Ar diffusion loss. These older Ar-Ar ages are similar to Sm-Nd and Rb-Sr isochron ages reported in the literature for Caddo County. Considering the possibility that IAB parent body formation was followed by impact disruption, reassembly, and metamorphism (e.g., Benedix et al. 2000), the time of the postassembly metamorphism may have been as late as approx. 4.53 Gyr ago. However, precise I-Xe ages reported for some IABs define a range of ages of approx. 4560 to approx. 4576 Myr. The older I-Xe ages exceed the oldest precise radiometric ages of meteorites, appear unrealistic, and suggest a bias in the calibration of all I-Xe ages. But even with such a bias, the I-Xe ages of IABs cannot easily be reconciled with the much younger Ar-Ar and Sm-Nd ages and with cooling rates deduced from Ni concentration profiles in IAB metal (Herpfer et al., 1994). An explanation for the difference in radiometric ages of IABs may reside in combinations of the following: a) I-Xe ages have very high closure temperatures and were not reset during metamorphism; b) a bias exists in the K-40 decay constants; c) the reported Sm-Nd and Rb-Sr ages for Caddo are in error by amounts equal to or exceeding their reported 2-sigma uncertainties; and 4) the IAB parent body may have experienced a mild metamorphism approx.30 My after the initial heating that produced differentiation of Caddo silicate and mixing of silicate and metal.
In the post-World War II era, the major technology drivers for improving the life, reliability, and performance of rolling-element bearings and gears have been the jet engine and the helicopter. By the late 1950s, most of the materials used for bearings and gears in the aerospace industry had been introduced into use. By the early 1960s, the life of most steels was increased over that experienced in the early 1940s, primarily by the introduction of vacuum degassing and vacuum melting processes in the late 1950s. The development of elastohydrodynamic (EHD) theory showed that most rolling bearings and gears have a thin film separating the contacting bodies during motion and it is that film which affects their lives. Computer programs modeling bearing and gear dynamics that incorporate probabilistic life prediction methods and EHD theory enable optimization of rotating machinery based on life and reliability. With improved manufacturing and processing, the potential improvement in bearing and gear life can be as much as 80 times that attainable in the early 1950s. The work presented summarizes the use of laboratory fatigue data for bearings and gears coupled with probabilistic life prediction and EHD theories to predict the life and reliability of a commercial turboprop gearbox. The resulting predictions are compared with field data.