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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 253 records · Page 14
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
NASA NTRS2016

CryoCart Restoration and Vacuum Pipe Construction

Propulsion systems that utilize hypergolic propellants have been used to power space vehicles since the beginning of the space program. Liquid methane and oxygen propulsion systems have emerged as an alternative and have proven to be more environmentally friendly. The incorporation of liquid methane/liquid oxygen (LOX) into the propulsion system has demonstrated an increase in engine performance, as well as a reduction in the volume, size and complexity of the system. Consequently, reducing the total mass of the vehicle which is a crucial aspect that is considered when planning space missions to both the Moon and Mars [1]. Project Morpheus has made significant advancements in liquid oxygen/liquid methane propulsion system technologies by incorporating a LOX/methane propulsion system to a vertical test bed. The vehicle consisted of a 5,000 lb main engine and four 20 lb remote control system (RCS) engines that utilize liquid methane/LOX as its propellant [1]. The vehicle completed successful flight testing at Kennedy Space Center in 2014 which marked the completion of the Morpheus project. Subsequent projects utilizing Morpheus' vertical test bed have been developed to make further advancements. One of the subsequent projects consisted of the addition of a smaller 2,000 lb main engine and a cold helium heat exchanger which would make it possible for a pressurant tank systems to be send to Mars or the Moon by significantly decreasing the overall mass and volume of the pressurant tank. The hot fire tests of the integrated system with the smaller main engine and cold helium heat exchanger were successful at sea level, but further studies are being conducted to better understand how the vertical test bed will behave under thermal-vacuum conditions. For this reason, the integrated vehicle will be taken to Plum Brook to be tested in a chamber capable of simulating these conditions. To ensure that the vehicle will function properly under vacuum conditions, testing will be first completed at the component level. During this process, the igniter of the main engine and the RCS thrusters will be tested under a vacuum. To complete the testing of the components, the test setup first needed to be finalized. The CryoCart is being used to feed the propellants to the test article. The CryoCart is a movable test set-up that was developed in 2009 to provide a mobile platform for testing oxygen/methane systems with hot-fire capability up to 100 lbf. The CryoCart consists of three different systems: Oxygen, Methane, and liquid Nitrogen. The Oxygen and Methane systems are placed into two different carts while the liquid nitrogen system is mainly located in the methane cart. Over the years, the CryoCart has been utilized for different projects and has undergone deterioration. For this reason, a new phase has been developed to rebuild it to working conditions once again. During my internship, I was aiding in the construction and restoration of the CryoCart. In the initial stages of the process, I updated the fluid and electrical schematics for the oxygen, methane, and test article systems. The original CryoCart consisted of an electrical panel that utilized electromechanical relays and a terminal to drive the igniter power and signal, as well as the main fuel and oxygen valves. This electrical panel connected to the CryoCart through various wire harnesses that could be found exiting from the CryoCart. First, it was determined how these harnesses connected to the electromechanical relays so that they worked correctly. Once the electrical system was understood, an alternative for the electromechanical relays and the Molex connectors used throughout the system was sought since these components can often prove to be unreliable. Solid State relays and MIL connectors were purchased to serve as replacements. Upon arrival of the parts, crimping and wiring was completed to install the new solid state relays and MIL connectors. During the replacement of the relays and connectors, system checks of the electrical system were ran to ensure that the system was working correctly. While completing system checks, the pressure transducers that were not functioning properly were also replaced and any issue with the wiring or signal was addressed. Once the electrical components were replaced, the restoration of the fluid system began. Parts of the tubing in the CryoCart had to be rebuild and often consisted of sizing, cutting, bending, filing, and sanding the tubing to prepare it to be flared. Many components had to be proof-tested to bring their certifications up to date, and several components had to be replaced. Various flex hoses, valves, and fittings were send to the Clean Lab because they were new, dirty, or had gone through proof-testing. Once they arrived from the cleaning lab they had to be put back to the system and leak checks and functional tests were conducted. In the Nitrogen system, the copper tubing located in the Oxygen cart was rebuild and Aerogel insulation was added to this section. A new gaseous nitrogen system was added to the CryoCart to purge the vacuum tube which will serve as the test chamber. Once the CryoCart was completed, construction of parts of the vacuum tube began. A flange was manufactured with welded fittings to hold the line of the vacuum pump as well as some extra fittings which will serve as extra inlets used to introduce fluid lines to the vacuum tube. Stress analysis was ran in this flange to ensure that it would not fail under vacuum conditions. The fluid lines leading from the air side of the vacuum to the test article were also constructed and added to the mount that had already been manufactured. Three different sets of tubing were constructed to accommodate the seven different RCS thruster and the main engine igniter that are going to be tested. Full electrical system checks were completed to ensure that all the wire harnesses and valves were functioning. Upon the completion of the CryoCart and the vacuum tube, hot fire testing for the RCS thrusters and the main engine igniter are going to begin. During this time any issues encountered with the engines or igniter will be addressed to ensure that the components function under vacuum conditions. After successful completion of testing, the vertical test bed, Morpheus, will be rebuilt and prepared to be sent to Plum Brook. In Plum Brook, the vehicle will be tested in the thermal-vacuum chamber to demonstrate that integrated lox-methane propulsion system operation in space-like conditions. This internship has allowed me the opportunity to gain valuable hands on experience and to develop skills that will aid in my education as well as in the workforce, while at the same time helping me determine that I would like to further pursue a career in propulsion engineering.

Chaidez, Mariana↗
DOE OSTI2023

Aluminum scandium nitride films for piezoelectric transduction into silicon at gigahertz frequencies

Recent advances in the growth of aluminum scandium nitride films on silicon suggest that this material platform could be applied for quantum electromechanical applications. Here, we model, fabricate, and characterize microwave frequency silicon phononic delay lines with transducers formed in an adjacent aluminum scandium nitride layer to evaluate aluminum scandium nitride films, at 32% scandium, on silicon interdigital transducers for piezoelectric transduction into suspended silicon membranes. We achieve an electromechanical coupling coefficient of 2.7% for the extensional symmetric-like Lamb mode supported in the suspended material stack and show how this coupling coefficient could be increased to at least 8.5%, which would further boost transduction efficiency and reduce the device footprint. The one-sided transduction efficiency, which quantifies the efficiency at which the source of microwave photons is converted to microwave phonons in the silicon membrane, is 10% at 5 GHz at room temperature and, as we discuss, there is a path to increase this toward near-unity efficiency based on a combination of modified device design and operation at cryogenic temperatures.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2021

Precipitation Hardening in Ferroelectric Ceramics

Domain wall motion in ferroics, similar to dislocation motion in metals, can be tuned by well-concepted microstructural elements. In demanding high-power applications of piezoelectric materials, the domain wall motion is considered as a lossy hysteretic mechanism that should be restricted. Current applications for so-called hard piezoelectrics are abundant and hinge on the use of an acceptor-doping scheme. However, this mechanism features severe limitations due to enhanced mobility of oxygen vacancies at moderate temperatures. By analogy with metal technology, the authors present here a new solution for electroceramics, where precipitates are utilized to pin domain walls and improve piezoelectric properties. Through a sequence of sintering, nucleation, and precipitate growth, intragranular precipitates leading to a fine domain structure are developed as shown by transmission electron microscopy, piezoresponse force microscopy, and phase-field simulation. This structure impedes the domain wall motion as elucidated by electromechanical characterization. As a result, the mechanical quality factor is increased by ≈50% and the hysteresis in electrostrain is suppressed considerably. This is even achieved with slightly increased piezoelectric coefficient and electromechanical coupling factor. This novel process can be smoothly implemented in industrial production processes and is accessible to simple laboratory experimentation for microstructure optimization and implementation in various ferroelectric systems.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2022

High performance high-power textured Mn/Cu-doped PIN-PMN-PT ceramics

Piezoelectric ceramics with combinatory soft and hard characteristics are highly desired for high-power applications. However, it remains grand challenge to achieve simultaneous presence of hard (e.g. high coercive field, E c ; high mechanical quality factor, Q m ) and soft (e.g. high piezoelectric constant, d; high electromechanical coupling factor, k) piezoelectric properties in piezoelectric ceramics since the mechanism controlling the hard behavior (pinned domain walls) will significantly reduce the soft behavior. Here, we address this grand challenge and demonstrate <001> textured MnO 2 and CuO co-doped Pb(In 1/2 Nb 1/2 )O 3- Pb(Mg 1/3 Nb 2/3 )O 3- PbTiO 3 (PIN-PMN-PT) ceramics exhibiting ultrahigh combined soft and hard piezoelectric properties (d 33 = 713 pC N –1 , k 31 = 0.52, Q m ≈950, E c = 9.6 kV cm –1 , tan δ = 0.45%). The outstanding electromechanical properties are explained by considering composition/phase selection, crystallographic anisotropy and defect engineering. Phase-field model in conjunction with high resolution electron microscopy and diffraction techniques is utilized to delineate the contributions arising from intrinsic piezoelectric response, domain dynamics, and local structural heterogeneity. Furthermore, these results will have significant impact in the development of high-power transducers and actuators.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2026

A statistical approach to analyzing domain dynamics in ferroelectric crystals using X-ray photon correlation spectroscopy

Ferroelectric materials exhibit strong electromechanical coupling, largely influenced by their domain structures. Numerous microstructural studies indicate that smaller domains with higher domain wall density generally enhance domain wall motion, although some inconsistencies have been reported. In this work, we use X-ray photon correlation spectroscopy (XPCS) to probe dynamic response in Pb(Mg 1/3 Nb 2/3 )O 3 -29PbTiO 3 (PMN-29PT) single crystals under applied electric fields. We introduce a two-field correlation approach, adapted from conventional two-time correlation to quantify dynamics. Statistical analysis reveals that both [001]-oriented direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC) poled samples show Poisson-like behavior within specific electric field regions. The DC-poled samples exhibit more frequent domain wall jump events but with smaller amount of decorrelation per jump event, whereas the AC-poled samples show fewer jump events with larger decorrelation per jump event. This observation aligns with the prevalence of 109° domain walls in the AC-poled samples, which contribute to more domain wall motion. These findings provide experimental evidence of collective domain wall motion and establish a direct connection between mesoscale dynamics and electromechanical response.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2021

Quantitative Measurement of Li-Ion Concentration and Diffusivity in Solid-State Electrolyte

Here, we present a quantitative method to measure the concentration and diffusivity of Li ion in a solid-state electrolyte with nanoscale depth resolution. We designed a standard sample with different depths of trenches and used time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectroscopy, inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy, three-dimensional (3D) optical microscopy, and electrochemical strain microscopy to obtain effective Li-ion concentration and the corresponding diffusivity as a function of depth. As a result, we verified the dependence of electromechanical strain induced by ionic oscillation on mobile-ion concentration. We also showed the diffusivity change as a function of effective concentration and discussed the difference in diffusivity near the surface and inside the bulk. Our method can be widely used for electromechanical strain in various ionic conductors, rendering our technique universal for quantitative analysis of ionic dynamics at a multiscale.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2020

Local Strain and Polarization Mapping in Ferrielectric Materials

CuInP 2 S 6 (CIPS) is a van der Waals material that has attracted attention because of its unusual properties. Recently, a combination of density functional theory (DFT) calculations and piezoresponse force microscopy (PFM) showed that CIPS is a uniaxial quadruple-well ferrielectric featuring two polar phases and a total of four polarization states that can be controlled by external strain. In this study, we combine DFT and PFM to investigate the stress-dependent piezoelectric properties of CIPS, which have so far remained unexplored. The two different polarization phases are predicted to differ in their mechanical properties and the stress sensitivity of their piezoelectric constants. This knowledge is applied to the interpretation of ferroelectric domain images, which enables investigation of local strain and stress distributions. The interplay of theory and experiment produces polarization maps and layer spacings which we compare to macroscopic X-ray measurements. We found that the sample contains only the low-polarization phase and that domains of one polarization orientation are strained, whereas domains of the opposite polarization direction are fully relaxed. The described nanoscale imaging methodology is applicable to any material for which the relationship between electromechanical and mechanical characteristics is known, providing insight on structural, mechanical, and electromechanical properties down to ~10 nm length scales.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2022

High Entropy Oxide Relaxor Ferroelectrics

Relaxor ferroelectrics are important in technological applications due to strong electromechanical response, energy storage capacity, electrocaloric effect, and pyroelectric energy conversion properties. Current efforts to discover and design materials in this class generally rely on substitutional doping as slight changes to local compositional order can significantly affect the Curie temperature, morphotropic phase boundary, and electromechanical responses. In this work, we demonstrate that moving to the strong limit of compositional complexity in an ABO 3 perovskite allows stabilization of relaxor responses that do not rely on a single narrow phase transition region. Entropy-assisted synthesis approaches are utilized to synthesize single-crystal Ba(Ti 0.2 Sn 0.2 Zr 0.2 Hf 0.2 Nb 0.2 )O 3 [Ba(5B)O] films. The high levels of configurational disorder present in this system are found to influence dielectric relaxation, phase transitions, nanopolar domain formation, and Curie temperature. Temperature-dependent dielectric, Raman spectroscopy, and second-harmonic generation measurements reveal multiple phase transitions, a high Curie temperature of 570 K, and the relaxor ferroelectric nature of Ba(5B)O films. The first-principles theory calculations are used to predict possible combinations of cations to design relaxor ferroelectrics and quantify the relative feasibility of synthesizing these highly disordered single-phase perovskite systems. Further, the ability to stabilize single-phase perovskites with various cations on the B-sites offers possibilities for designing high-performance relaxor ferroelectric materials for piezoelectric, pyroelectric, and electrocaloric applications.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2023

Lead-free Zr-doped ceria ceramics with low permittivity displaying giant electrostriction

Electrostrictors, materials developing mechanical strain proportional to the square of the applied electric field, present many advantages for mechanical actuation as they convert electrical energy into mechanical, but not vice versa. Both high relative permittivity and reliance on Pb as the key component in commercial electrostrictors pose serious practical and health problems. Here we describe a low relative permittivity (<250) ceramic, Zr x Ce 1-x O 2 (x < 0.2), that displays electromechanical properties rivaling those of the best performing electrostrictors: longitudinal electrostriction strain coefficient ~10 -16 m 2 /V 2 ; relaxation frequency ≈ a few kHz; and strain ≥0.02%. Combining X-ray absorption spectroscopy, atomic-level modeling and electromechanical measurements, here we show that electrostriction in Zr x Ce 1-x O 2 is enabled by elastic dipoles produced by anharmonic motion of the smaller isovalent dopant (Zr). Unlike the elastic dipoles in aliovalent doped ceria, which are present even in the absence of an applied elastic or electric field, the elastic dipoles in Zr x Ce 1-x O 2 are formed only under applied anisotropic field. The local descriptors of electrostrictive strain, namely, the cation size mismatch and dynamic anharmonicity, are sufficiently versatile to guide future searches in other polycrystalline solids.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2022

On the mechanism of performance improvement of electroactive polyvinyl chloride (PVC) gel actuators via conductive fillers

Abstract The electromechanical actuation of transparent plasticized polyvinyl chloride (PVC) gels with conductive fillers were studied. The effects of functionalized carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate ([Bmim]BF 4 ) ionic liquid (IL) on both the electrical conduction and dielectric processes within PVC gels were investigated, and the differences between the two were clarified. Both CNTs and IL were shown to increase the conductivity of the gels and produce larger electromechanical transduction of a contraction actuator, but only CNTs were shown to increase the electrostatic adhesion force of the PVC gels. The addition of charge carriers to the gel via the inclusion of ILs was shown to significantly reduce the conductivity relaxation time, and the transient current upon voltage polarity reversal indicated multiple peaks corresponding to the introduction of carriers with different polarities and mobilities into the gel. This is believed to cause a screening effect, reducing the charge accumulation at the anode that is the foundational basis for PVC gels’ actuation mechanism. A recommendation for preferable conductive fillers for various applications is made.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2025

Monolithic AlScN/SiC phononic waveguides for scalable acoustoelectric and quantum devices

Unlike conventional surface acoustic wave devices, phononic waveguide systems enable higher circuit density and stronger strain and piezoelectric fields, making them promising for advanced acoustoelectric and quantum applications. One such material system for generating and guiding phonons at gigahertz frequencies is AlScN on SiC, which can be synthesized by sputter depositing AlScN directly onto SiC wafers. The AlScN on the SiC platform allows for tightly vertically-confined acoustic modes with high electromechanical coupling, high speed of sound, and simple fabrication of strip and rib waveguides. Until now, this system has only been studied as a slab waveguide platform, i.e., without any lateral waveguiding. Here, we demonstrate a two-dimensionally confined phononic architecture in AlScN on SiC that supports guided modes at 2.95 and 4.05 GHz. These modes exhibit strong electromechanical coupling coefficients (k 2 = 4.27%) and propagation losses on the order of 10 dB/mm. Furthermore, this architecture is well-suited for phononic routing and power-efficient active or nonlinear devices such as amplifiers, mixers, and oscillators, and is compatible with the integration of quantum systems, including vacancy centers, charge carriers, photons, and spins, either embedded in SiC or heterogeneously integrated on the surface.

Electrical components↗
DOE OSTI2020

A 3D-printed molecular ferroelectric metamaterial

Significance Molecular ferroelectrics, which show the ability to switch the electromechanical activity by an external electric field, establish the basis for mechanical metamaterial technologies. Despite their theoretical promise, such mechanical metamaterials remain hindered by the lack of adaptive stimuli-responsive materials which can be effectively tuned “on demand” across time and length scales. Here, we unravel a printable mechanical metamaterial of imidazolium perchlorate with superior electromechanical coupling and reprogrammable stiffness. We propose a continuous rapid three-dimensional (3D) printing technique which can reduce the manufacturing time of ferroelectrics from hours down to minutes. The printed molecular ferroelectric metamaterial structure is then shown to enable a tunable-frequency vibration-isolating architecture. This study paves the way for rationally designed 3D-printable molecular ferroelectric metamaterials.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2020

Coupling of electroelastic dynamics and direct contact ultrasonic drying formulation for annular piezoelectric bimorph transducers

A newly developed technique for drying clothes without thermal energy has been developed through the utilization of ultrasonic vibrations from piezoelectric transducers. The novel technique incorporates the actuation of a thin stainless steel disk in contact with wet fabric via annular piezoelectric rings, where water in the liquid form is atomized, transported through microchannels in the disk, and ejected as a mist. In such a system, resonance matching between the actuation portion of the transducer and the portion contacting fabric must be realized, with theoretical results from the developed electromechanical model showing a reduction in energy consumption by 50% when resonance matching is achieved. The electrically coupled distributed parameter model for an annular bimorph piezoelectric transducer is developed for optimization of ultrasonic drying technology. The thickness mode vibrations are shown to dominate the behavior of the system, where the analytically developed model can be optimized to increase the output acceleration of the transducer, thus increasing drying performance. Here, the electromechanical equation developed will be connected to the drying rates of fabrics in contact with said vibrations, where the novelty of the coupled equations and its description of the physics of ultrasonic drying will be discussed.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2022

A study of electroactive polyvinyl chloride (PVC) gel actuators through the use of the electric modulus formalism and cyclic linear voltage sweeps

The conductivity and dielectric properties are integral to the function of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) gel actuators. The frequency-dependent properties of PVC gel actuators are investigated here in terms of their impedance, permittivity, and for the first time, electric modulus. The data shows that PVC gels’ conductive properties are just as, if not more, important as their dielectric properties in electromechanical transduction applications. The electrode polarization (EP) and its impact on the impedance and dielectric spectra of PVC gels, as well as the developed asymmetric space charge at the anode, are discussed. The electric modulus and tan δ spectra are used for the fitting of Cole-Cole (CC) and Debye relaxation models for gels of varying plasticizer content. The electrostatic adhesive force for PVC gels of varying plasticizer is also measured, indicating large electrostatic adhesion (>2 N cm -2 ). A cyclic linear voltage sweep is used to clarify the dynamics of space charge within the gels. The peak current (associated with space charge development) is seen to be concurrent with the onset of mechanical deformation, showing the asymmetric charge as the origin of electromechanical transduction. Additionally, the maximum charge transferred (as measured by the integration of current over time) before space charge development is found to correlate with the electrostatic adhesive force measured for the gels, pointing to a new method of characterizing PVC gels for actuation.

Instruments & Instrumentation↗
DOE OSTI2026

Generalization of Stoney’s equation for flexoelectric thin films on elastic substrates

When a thin film is deposited on an incompatible elastic substrate, the film develops an elastic mismatch strain, causing the film–substrate system to bend. Stoney’s equation relates the curvature of the bent film–substrate system with the residual stress developed in the film, and can be used to infer film properties from curvature measurements. Certain materials exhibit electromechanical coupling, such as piezoelectricity and flexoelectricity, which can alter the curvature and strains. In this work, we generalize Stoney’s equation to include flexoelectric and piezoelectric effects in the film. Considering both open and closed circuit configurations, as well as uniform and non-uniform film properties, we compare different cases of electromechanical coupling and discuss their influence on curvature, strains, and electric polarization in the film.

Ghosh, Swarnava [ORNL] (ORCID:0000000338005264)↗
DOE OSTI2023

Acoustic Radiation From a Superconducting Qubit: From Spontaneous Emission to Rabi Oscillations

Hybrid quantum systems that utilize controllable coupling between phonons and superconducting qubits could pave the way for a new generation of compact quantum memories and sensor technologies. However, the same electromechanical interaction mechanisms that enable coherent qubit-phonon coupling can also lead to decoherence due to the spontaneous phonon emission. In this paper we study the dynamics of a qubit coupled to an acoustic resonator by a piezoelectric film. By varying the surface topography of the resonator from rough to flat to shaped, we explore the crossover from fast decay of an excited qubit to quantum-coherent coupling between the qubit and an isolated phonon mode. The developed theoretical model allows us to establish and check quantitative links between the results obtained for the rough and shaped topographies. Discrepancy between the theory and the data for the flat resonator points to the imperfections of the studied device. Our experimental approach may be used for precision measurements of crystalline vibrations, the design of quantum memories, and the study of electromechanical contributions to dielectric loss.

75 CONDENSED MATTER PHYSICS, SUPERCONDUCTIVITY AND↗
DOE OSTI2025

EMT-TS Hybrid Simulation for Large Power Grids Considering IBR-Driven Dynamics

The escalating integration of inverter-based resources (IBRs) poses new challenges to power systems by introducing fast dynamics with higher frequencies, which may need to be simulated by an electromagnetic transient (EMT) program. As an alternative to conducting EMT simulations for the entire system, which is typically time consuming, hybrid simulation between EMT and phasor-domain transient stability (TS) can greatly reduce the computational burden while preserving the detailed fast dynamics in the EMT zone. This paper establishes an EMT-TS hybrid simulation platform using open-source tools, specifically ParaEMT, GridPACK, and HELICS, which are the EMT simulator, TS simulator, and interface framework, respectively. Case studies on the 240-bus Western Electricity Coordinating Council (WECC) system demonstrate that the developed ParaEMT-HELICS-GridPACK hybrid simulator can accurately capture both slow electromechanical and fast IBR-driven dynamics with a 2.4x speedup.

electromagnetic transient↗
DOE OSTI2023

Developing VSC-HVDC Oscillation Damping Control Constraints in Unit Commitment

High-voltage direct current (HVDC) systems within the existing power grids will play a pivotal role in enabling high share of renewable power integration and transportation electrification. There is a need for transmission planning models to accurately capture the impact of VSC-HVDC oscillation damping control on the system planning and model the constraints in the security constrained unit commitment (SCUC) problem. In this paper, the SCUC problem in a hybrid DC-AC grid considering damping on electromechanical inter-area oscillation is studied. An electromechanical oscillation-driven transmission capability constraints are derived from system swing equation and incorporated into the SCUC. Multiple system damping control scenarios are set based on the extracted plausible bounds of damping coefficient and inertia constant to linearize the nonlinear expressions. The SCUC problem with proposed constraints is tested on the Reliability Test System Grid Modernization Lab Consortium (RTS-GMLC) via PLEXOS. The impact of the proposed constraints on regional generation, inertia, power flow, annual system cost, and renewable energy curtailment are fully assessed.

damping control↗