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At least 253 records · Page 14

A Rapid Compression Machine Study of 2-Phenylethanol Autoignition at Low-To-Intermediate Temperatures

To meet the increasing anti-knocking quality demand of boosted spark-ignition engines, fuel additives are considered an effective approach to tailor fuel properties for satisfying the performance requirements. Thus, screening/developing bio-derived fuel additives that are best-suited for advanced spark-ignition engines has become a significant task. 2-Phenylethanol (2-PE) is an attractive candidate that features high research octane number, high octane sensitivity, low vapor pressure, and high energy density. Recognizing that the low temperature autoignition chemistry of 2-PE is not well understood and the need for fundamental experimental data at engine-relevant conditions, rapid compression machine (RCM) experiments are therefore conducted herein to measure ignition delay times (IDTs) of 2-PE in air over a wide range of conditions to fill this fundamental void. These newly acquired IDT data at low-to-intermediated temperatures, equivalence ratios of 0.35–1.5, and compressed pressures of 10–40 bar are then used to validate the 2-PE model developed by Shankar et al. (2017). It is found that this literature model greatly overpredicts the current RCM data. The comparison of experimental and simulated results also provides insights into 2-PE autoignition behaviors at varying conditions. Further chemical kinetic analyses demonstrate that the absence of the O2-addition pathway of β-R. radical in the 2-PE model of Shankar et al. (2017) could account for the model discrepancies observed at low-to-intermediated temperatures.

Fang, Ruozhou (ORCID:0000000348315100)↗

Fuel Effects on Advanced Compression Ignition Load Limits

In order to increase the efficiency of light-duty gasoline engines, the Co-Optimization of Fuels and Engines (Co-Optima) initiative from the U.S. Department of Energy is investigating multi-mode combustion strategies. Multi-mode combustion can be describe as using conventional spark-ignited combustion at high loads, and at the part-load operating conditions, various advanced compression ignition (ACI) strategies are being investigated to increase efficiency. Of particular interest to the Co-Optima initiative is the extent to which optimal fuel properties and compositions can enable higher efficiency ACI combustion over larger portions of the operating map. Extending the speed-load range of these ACI modes can enable greater part-load efficiency improvements for multi-mode combustion strategies. In this manuscript, we investigate fuel effects for six different fuels, including four with a research octane number (RON) of 98 and differing fuel chemistries, iso-octane, and a market representative E10 fuel, on the load limits for two different ACI strategies: spark-assisted compression ignition (SACI) and partial fuel stratification-gasoline compression ignition (PFS-GCI) operation. Experimental results show that limits to intake boosting limit high load operation for most fuels, but high smoke emissions for high particulate matter index (PMI) fuels under SACI conditions could also be a limitation. Contrastingly, low load is limited by combustion efficiency, but these effects have more pronounced variation with fuel chemistry for PFS-GCI than with SACI. Additional, distinct effects affecting autoignition timing and peak heat release at higher speeds were identified for fuels having different low temperature heat release (LTHR) propensities for both ACI modes.

33 ADVANCED PROPULSION SYSTEMS↗

Impact of multimode range and location on urban fuel economy on a light-duty spark-ignition based powertrain using vehicle system simulations

Multimode engine operation uses two or more combustion modes to maximize engine efficiency across the operational range of a vehicle to achieve higher overall vehicle fuel economy than is possible with a single combustion mode. More specifically for this study, multimode solutions are explored that make use of boosted SI under high load operation and other advanced combustion modes such as advanced compression ignition (ACI) under part-load conditions to enable additional engine efficiency improvements across a broader range of the engine operating map. ACI combustion has well-documented potential to improve efficiency and emissions under part-load operation but poses challenges that limit full engine speed-load range. This study investigates the potential impact of ACI operational range on simulated fuel economy to help focus research on areas with the most opportunity for improving fuel economy. These simulations make use of a vehicle model, discretized engine data, and employ a systematic exploration of ACI operational range to estimate multimode fuel economy for a mid-size passenger vehicle over U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s Urban Dynamometer Driving Schedule. The results of this study highlight operational ranges with the highest potential fuel economy and correspondingly areas of focus for multimode research and ACI engine operation1.

Curran, Scott↗

Space Shuttle filament wound case compressive strength study. I - Testing

Immediately before liftoff, ignition of the Space Shuttle main engines places a significant bending moment on the filament wound cases of the solid rocket booster motors. This results in substantial compressive loading of the aft end of the composite case which, because of attachment requirements, has a complicated design including inserted broadgoods and helical ply dropoffs. To investigate the performance of the filament wound cases during the prelaunch load environment, a comprehensive study was initiated which included both testing and analysis. The results of the test program, which included testing of several full-scale and over three hundred subscale articles, will be described. The test program began with a short development effort to establish appropriate subscale test specimens for determining the material compressive strengths. Once these were established, a more comprehensive test program was initiated to determine the effects on strength of both processing and design changes. Full-scale cases were tested in a simulated prelaunch bending environment in order to validate the analysis predictions. In all tests, special attention was given to observation of the failure sequence which involved a complex process of load transfer from the region of helical ply dropoffs to the broadgood termination region.

Madsen, C. B.↗

Misr: Miniature Ignition Screening Rapid Compression Machine for Kinetic Measurements of Novel Fuels (Final Report)

High throughput ignition screening would be useful for evaluating fuels before scaled production. One method for doing this involves generating a map of ignition delay times over different conditions for each fuel blend. Constant condition ignition delay time maps can be used to estimate ignition for engines in prescribed thermodynamic trajectories. A Miniaturized Ignition Screening Rapid Compression Machine (MISR) has been developed and built at the University of Illinois Chicago (UIC) intending to generate those constant condition ignition delay time maps for low temperature chemistry relevant conditions. Some design features include a bellows-actuated driver section, which is lighter compared to other RCM designs, an adjustable brake section, and full optical access. The setup was designed to achieve reaction conditions (T > 600K and P < 100 bar with repetition rates of about 8 seconds per experiment). These conditions were meant to be relevant to low-to-intermediate temperature auto-ignition and for generation of data for developing relevant chemical kinetics models or ignition maps. Because of the compression characteristics and the heat loss characteristics of the MISR, the apparatus currently tests higher temperatures over shorter test times than what would be desirable, however there are some pathways to improved compression characteristics as detailed in this report. A detailed description of the MISR design and its operating mechanism is discussed. The team faced several challenges and setbacks in the construction and commissioning of the MISR, and those are highlighted, along with the modifications that were performed to get the MISR operational. To demonstrate the performance characteristics of the MISR, limited ignition delay experiments were conducted for ethanol fuel at different equivalence ratios (Φ), and those results were usable, but again test a higher temperature and shorter ignition delay time than initially intended.

02 PETROLEUM↗

Development of a Physics-Based Combustion Model for Engine Knock Prediction

The objective of this project is to improve the prediction of engine knock by developing a new combustion modeling framework. Engine knock is a limiting factor to constrain the increase of fuel efficiency for spark ignition (SI) engines in most passenger cars. Efforts to increase fuel efficiency, increasing the compression ratio or downsizing, lead to the increase in the tendency of the knock occurrence. The knock is an undesired ignition of the end-gas, unburned fuel/air mixture ahead of the spark-ignited premixed flame, resulting in rapid in-cylinder pressure rises and engine damages. The combustion modeling framework developed in this project can consider turbulence-chemistry interactions during end-gas ignition, while using a reasonably detailed chemical mechanism developed for ignition and combustion reactions under engine relevant conditions, and the subtle characteristics of spark-ignited flame propagation. It is developed in the context of large eddy simulation (LES), which can capture stochastic in-cylinder processes. The developed model is incorporated into a commercial software for engine simulation, CONVERGE CFD, as a user defined function, and validated. Engine knock and knock-free experiments as well as direct numerical simulation (DNS) of end-gas ignition in homogeneous turbulence are performed to help model development and provide data sets for model validation. With further validation, the developed model is expected to advance the predictive capability for engine knock simulations and thus contribute to improving the fuel efficiency.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗

Development of a Physics-Based Combustion Model for Engine Knock Prediction

The objective of this project is to improve the prediction of engine knock by developing a new combustion modeling framework. Engine knock is a limiting factor to constrain the increase of fuel efficiency for spark ignition (SI) engines in most passenger cars. Efforts to increase fuel efficiency, increasing the compression ratio or downsizing, lead to the increase in the tendency of the knock occurrence. The knock is an undesired ignition of the end-gas, unburned fuel/air mixture ahead of the spark-ignited premixed flame, resulting in rapid in-cylinder pressure rises and engine damages. The combustion modeling framework developed in this project can consider turbulence-chemistry interactions during end-gas ignition, while using a reasonably detailed chemical mechanism developed for ignition and combustion reactions under engine relevant conditions, and the subtle characteristics of spark-ignited flame propagation. It is developed in the context of large eddy simulation (LES), which can capture stochastic in-cylinder processes. The developed model is incorporated into a commercial software for engine simulation, CONVERGE CFD, as a user defined function, and validated. Engine knock and knock-free experiments as well as direct numerical simulation (DNS) of end-gas ignition in homogeneous turbulence are performed to help model development and provide data sets for model validation. With further validation, the developed model is expected to advance the predictive capability for engine knock simulations and thus contribute to improving the fuel efficiency.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗

CFD modeling of near-wall combustion and unburned methane prediction in natural gas spark ignition engines

Natural gas-powered engines play a critical role in gas drilling, compression, and transmission sectors, but methane (CH 4 ) from engine combustion slip can be significant over their lifespan, contributing to atmospheric pollution and signaling reduced engine efficiency. Here, to address this challenge, computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations offer valuable insights into the in-cylinder combustion process, enabling the optimization of combustion strategies and engine designs to minimize unburned CH 4 slip. This study aims to evaluate and improve combustion models for simulating the combustion process and predicting unburned CH 4 concentrations in natural gas spark-ignition (SI) engines, including engines that are part of combined reformer-engine systems. Specifically, the performance of two flamelet-based combustion models—the Extended Coherent Flame Model (ECFM) and the G-equation model—was assessed using experimental engine data collected under varying excess-air ratio (λ) conditions and fuel compositions, including natural gas and syngas blends. In addition, to enhance the predictive capabilities of the G-equation model, a flame-wall interaction (FWI) sub-model was integrated into its framework. The effects of its model parameters, such as quenching and influence distance, on combustion behavior and unburned methane predictions were analyzed in detail. The ECFM tended to predict delayed combustion phasing under diluted mixture conditions, resulting in overprediction of unburned CH 4 concentrations. In contrast, the G-equation model provided reasonable predictions of combustion pressure, while representing higher the CH 4 reduction rate across the operating condition compared to experimental data. Incorporating the FWI sub-model—with the quenching distance calculated based on a pressure-dependent relation (P -0.48 ) and a fixed influence distance of 1.5 mm—further improved the G-equation model’s accuracy in predicting CH 4 reduction rates without compromising its ability to simulate the combustion process.

Combustion model↗

Increasing the compression pressure in an engine by using a long intake pipe

During some tests of a one-cylinder engine, using gas oil (diesel engine oil, specific gravity 0.86 at 60 F) with solid injection and compression ignition, it was found to be necessary to increase either the jacket water temperature or the compression pressure in order to start the engine. It was found that a sufficient increase in compression pressure could be obtained simply by attaching a long pipe to the inlet flange of the cylinder. However, since no data were available giving the values of the increase in compression pressure that might be expected from such a step-up, an investigation was made covering some engine speeds between 500 r.p.m. and 1800 r.p.m. The data obtained are included here in the form of curves. Although this data is not strictly applicable to another engine, it should give indications of what might be expected with such a set-up on an engine operating at similar speeds. The engine used was a single cylinder Liberty, 5-inch bore and 7-inch stroke, having standard cylinder, cams, valves, and valve timing and operating on a four-stroke cycle.

Mathews, Robertson↗

Conventional engine technology. Volume 2: Status of diesel engine technology

The engines of diesel cars marketed in the United States were examined. Prominent design features, performance characteristics, fuel economy and emissions data were compared. Specific problems, in particular those of NO and smoke emissions, the effects of increasing dieselization on diesel fuel price and availability, current R&D work and advanced diesel concepts are discussed. Diesel cars currently have a fuel economy advantage over gasoline engine powered cars. Diesel drawbacks (noise and odor) were reduced to a less objectionable level. An equivalent gasoline engine driveability was obtained with turbocharging. Diesel manufacturers see a growth in the diesel market for the next ten years. Uncertainties regarding future emission regulation may inhibit future diesel production investments. With spark ignition engine technology advancing in the direction of high compression ratios, the fuel economy advantages of the diesel car is expected to diminish. To return its fuel economy lead, the diesel's potential for future improvement must be used.

Schneider, H. W.↗

A simplified life-cycle cost comparison of various engines for small helicopter use

A ten-year, life-cycle cost comparison is made of the following engines for small helicopter use: (1) simple turboshaft; (2) regenerative turboshaft; (3) compression-ignition reciprocator; (4) spark-ignited rotary; and (5) spark-ignited reciprocator. Based on a simplified analysis and somewhat approximate data, the simple turboshaft engine apparently has the lowest costs for mission times up to just under 2 hours. At 2 hours and above, the regenerative turboshaft appears promising. The reciprocating and rotary engines are less attractive, requiring from 10 percent to 80 percent more aircraft to have the same total payload capability as a given number of turbine powered craft. A nomogram was developed for estimating total costs of engines not covered in this study.

Civinskas, K. C.↗

THE EFFECT OF FUEL REACTIVITY AND EXHAUST GAS RECIRCULATION ON KNOCK PROPENSITY OF NATURAL GAS

The development of high efficiency, spark ignited natural gas engines is currently limited by engine knock at high compression ratio/elevated boost pressures and misfire at lean conditions/high exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) levels. The knock and misfire limits are further confounded by the wide variety in fuel reactivity observed in “pipeline quality” natural gas. In this study, a rapid compression machine was used to characterize the effects of EGR and variation in natural gas fuel reactivity on the homogeneous ignition delay, flame propagation rate, and end- gas autoignition propensity for stoichiometric natural gas/oxidizer/EGR blends. A reduced chemical kinetic mechanism was also developed to accurately model the homogeneous ignition delays measured in the Colorado State University rapid compression machine (CSU RCM). Pipeline quality natural gas with a range of chemical reactivity (68 < Methane Number < 95) was simulated using mixtures of CH4, C2H6, and C3H8. Exhaust gas recirculation gases were simulated with mixtures of Ar, CO2, CO, and NO at substitution rates of 0 to 30 mass percent. Ignition delay period under homogeneous autoignition conditions was measured at compressed pressures of 30.2 to 34.0 bar and compressed temperatures of 667 to 980 K. End-gas autoignition fraction and flame propagation rate were measured by initiating a laser spark in the center of the combustion chamber, after compression, at pressures of 30.7 to 32.7 bar and temperatures of 751 to 795 K. The results indicate that both fuel reactivity and the presence of reactive species (NO and CO) in the exhaust gas recirculation have a strong impact on end-gas autoignition fraction. A chemical kinetic mechanism was developed to predict homogeneous ignition delays for pipeline quality natural gas in a pressure and temperature range of 1-100 bar and 500-1000 K respectively. This mechanism accurately predicted measured homogeneous ignition delay in the RCM with a total average relative error of 11.0%.

Mohr, Jeffrey↗

CFD-Guided Evaluation of Spark-Assisted Gasoline Compression Ignition for Cold Idle Operation

A closed-cycle, three-dimensional (3D) computational fluid dynamics (CFD) analysis campaign was conducted to evaluate the performance of using spark plugs to assist gasoline compression ignition (GCI) combustion during cold idle operations. A conventional spark plug using single-sided J-strap design was put at a location on the cylinder head to facilitate spray-guided spark assistance. Ignition was modeled with an L-type energy distribution to depict the breakdown and the arc-to-glow phases during the energy discharge process. Several key design parameters were investigated, including injector clocking, number of nozzle holes, spray inclusion angle, number of fuel injections, fuel split ratio, and fuel injection timings. The study emphasized the region around the spark gap, focusing on flame kernel formation and development and local equivalence ratio distribution. Flame kernel development and the ignition process were found to correlate strongly with the fuel stratification and the flow velocity near the spark gap. The analysis results showed that the flame kernel development followed the direction of the local flow field. In addition, the local fuel stratification notably influenced early-stage flame kernel development due to varying injection spray patterns and the fuel injection strategies. Among these design parameters, the number of nozzle holes and fuel injection timing had the most significant effects on the engine combustion performance.

42 ENGINEERING↗

Independent Fuel Property Effects of Fuel Volatility on Low Temperature Heat Release and Fuel Autoignition (Final Report)

This Cooperative Research and Development Agreement (CRADA) project between Argonne National Laboratory (ANL), Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL), and Shell Global Solutions (Shell) was initiated as part of a Directed Funding Opportunity (DFO) call for proposals from the Co-Optimization of Fuels and Engines (Co-Optima) initiative. Shell had observed that volatile fuels suppress low temperature heat release (LTHR) more than expected based on conventional gasoline autoignition metrics: research octane number (RON) and motor octane number (MON). The role of LTHR contributes to autoignition phenomena for both boosted spark ignition (BSI) and advanced compression ignition (ACI) combustion modes. ACI combustion modes are applicable to large engines in the hard-to-electrify applications such as off-road, rail, and marine. Thus, having a reliable understanding of autoignition phenomena, including being able to accurately account for the effects of fuel volatility, is particularly important as new synthetic and bio-fuel compositions are considered.This CRADA project aimed to test the hypothesis that the decreased LTHR is due to preferential evaporation of multicomponent fuels when using direct injection (DI) fueling technology, creating composition and reactivity stratification. A custom set of fuels was designed and blended to test this hypothesis by Shell, with experimental engine studies at ORNL and engine combustion modeling by ANL. However, the initial experimental findings did not show the expected effect of fuel volatility suppressing LTHR. Instead, the LTHR propensity observed was independent of the fuel volatility. Due to the unexpected experimental result, the remainder of the experimental effort was redirected to study the effect of fuel volatility on emissions under spark-ignited cold-start conditions. However, as with the LTHR experiments, the cold start effort did not show a meaningful effect of fuel volatility on cold start emissions. Meanwhile, improved engine CFD models have been developed for both LTHR and cold start operations for the Shell fuels with different volatilities. While the simulation efforts were not pursued further due to the insignificant effects of fuel volatility as shown in experiments, the models developed can be easily retooled for off-road, rail, and marine applications.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗

Fuel property impacts on gaseous and PM emissions from a multi-mode single-cylinder engine

The U.S. Department of Energy’s Co-Optima initiative has focused on improving fuel economy and vehicle performance while reducing emissions through the simultaneous development of emerging sustainable fuels with beneficial properties and advanced combustion strategies. A major thrust has been the development of advanced compression ignition (ACI) combustion strategies of gasoline range fuels in combination with spark-ignited (SI) combustion in a single engine capable of multi-mode operation to achieve high power density with enhanced part load efficiency. The aim of this study was to further the understanding of how emissions from both ACI and SI strategies operating on the same fuels in the same engine are impacted by different fuel properties. This investigation focused on particulate matter (PM) and gaseous hydrocarbon emissions from 6 different fuels across 3 different combustion modes on the same single-cylinder engine designed for multi-mode operation: SI combustion, partial fuel stratification (PFS), and spark-assisted compression ignition (SACI). In each of these modes, 3 different CA50 phasings were studied such that all 6 fuels could be studied at the same phasings. Three of the six different fuels used were specially formulated in a previous investigation to study the impact of fuel distillation and aromatic content while maintaining the research octane number (RON) and octane sensitivity. Additionally, neat isooctane and two ethanol containing fuels (RD5-87 and Co-Optima E30) were studied. Different fuel and phasing impacts on emissions were observed across the three combustion modes. Fuel properties were found to impact soot PM and particle number more than the CA50 phasing, while the phasing had more impact on NOx emissions. The NOx emissions were reduced in the PFS mode for all fuels compared to SI combustion, but the SACI combustion mode did not reduce NOx emissions. Although PFS produced low soot PM emissions like SI, total PM mass emissions were significantly higher due to large organic carbon (OC) PM mass contribution. Both PFS and SACI had greater particle number emission than SI operation with small nuclei mode particles dominating in PFS compared to large agglomeration particles in SACI.

42 ENGINEERING↗

Next Generation High Efficiency Boosted Engine Concept

This report summarizes a collaborative research project between Ford Motor Company, FEV North America, and Oak Ridge National Laboratory to develop a next-generation, high-efficiency, boosted spark-ignited engine. The goal was to achieve a 23% improvement in fuel economy and a 15% reduction in engine weight compared to a 2016 Ford F150. The team utilized advanced technologies including a high compression ratio, cooled exhaust gas recirculation (EGR), early intake valve closing, and a novel active pre-chamber ignition system. The final engine prototype met the fuel economy goal and demonstrated a 4.3% weight reduction, with further opportunities identified to reach the full 15% target.

Fuel economy↗

Effects of isoalcohol blending with gasoline on autoignition behavior in a rapid compression machine: Isopropanol and isobutanol

Alcohols, and particularly isoalcohols, are potentially advantageous blendstocks towards achieving efficient, low-carbon intensity internal combustion engines. Their use in advanced configurations, such as boosted spark-ignition or spark-assisted compression ignition, requires a comprehensive understanding of their blending effects on the low- and intermediate-temperature autoignition behavior of petroleum-derived gasoline. This work reports an experimental and modeling study of such autoignition characteristics quantified in a twin-piston rapid compression machine. Isopropanol and isobutanol are blended into a research-grade gasoline (FACE-F) at oxygenate blend levels of 0 to 30% vol/vol, with tests conducted at pressures of 20 and 40 bar, temperatures from 700 to 1000 K, and dilute stoichiometric fuel loadings. Changes to overall reactivity, including first-stage and main ignition times, and preliminary exothermicity are established, with comparisons made to previous measurements with ethanol-blended FACE-F gasoline. Furthermore, it is found that at low-temperature/NTC conditions (700–860 K) the isoalcohols suppress first-stage reactivity and associated heat release while main ignition times are extended. At NTC/intermediate-temperature (860–1000 K) conditions changes to fuel reactivity are less significant with isopropanol slightly suppressing reactivity and isobutanol promoting ignition. Detailed chemical kinetic modeling is used to interpret the experimental measurements. Overall trends of suppression or promotion in the blending behavior are reasonably captured by the model. Sensitivity and rate of production analyses indicate that at lower temperatures H-atom abstraction reactions from the surrogate fuel molecules (e.g., cyclopentane, isooctane) and the isoalcohols via OH are important leading to TC 3 H 6 OH and IC 4 H 8 OH–C radicals, for isopropanol and isobutanol respectively, which act as scavengers in the system. At higher temperatures, similar chemistries are dominant, but there is an increasing importance of abstraction by HO 2 . The kinetic modeling also indicates that the promoting effect of isobutanol at higher temperatures is due to the increased abstractions at the γ-sites, while at lower temperatures abstraction at the α-site leads to greater reactivity suppression.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗