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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 253 records · Page 14
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2020

Epitaxial Regrowth and Hole Shape Engineering for Photonic Crystal Surface Emitting Lasers (PCSELs)

In the present research, epitaxial regrowth by molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) is investigated as a fabrication process for void-semiconductor photonic crystal (PhC) surface emitting lasers (PCSELs). The PhC is patterned by electron beam lithography (EBL) and inductively coupled plasma (ICP) etch and is subsequently regrown by molecular beam epitaxy to embed a series of voids in bulk semiconductor. Experiments are conducted to investigate the effects of regrowth on air-hole morphology. The resulting voids have a distinct teardrop shape with the radius and depth of the etched hole playing a very critical role in the final regrown void’s dimensions. We demonstrate that specific hole diameters can encourage deposition to the bottom of the voids or to their sidewalls, allowing us to engineer the shape of the void more precisely as is required by the PCSEL design. A 980 nm InGaAs quantum well laser structure is optimized for low threshold lasing at the design wavelength and full device structures are patterned and regrown. An optically pumped PCSEL is demonstrated from this process.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2023

Bimetallic-Derived Catalytic Structures for CO 2 -Assisted Ethane Activation

In recent years, the simultaneous upgrading of CO 2 and ethane has emerged as a promising approach for generating valuable gaseous (CO, H 2 , and ethylene) and liquid (aromatics and C 3 oxygenates) chemicals from the greenhouse gas CO 2 and large-reserved shale gas. The key challenges for controlling product selectivity lie in the selective C-H and C-C bond cleavage of ethane with the assistance of CO 2 . Bimetallic-derived catalysts likely undergo alloying or oxygen-induced segregation under reaction conditions, thus providing diverse types of interfacial sites, e.g., metal/support (M/M'O x ) interface and metal oxide/metal (M'O x /M) inverse interface, that are beneficial for selective CO 2 -assisted ethane upgrading. The alloying extent can be initially predicted by cohesive energy and atomic radius (or Wigner-Seitz radius), while the preference for segregation to form the on-top suboxide can be approximated using the work function, electronegativity, and binding strength of adsorbed oxygen. Furthermore, bimetallic-derived catalysts are typically supported on high surface area oxides. Modifying the reducibility and acidity/basicity of the oxide supports and introducing surface defects facilitate CO 2 activation and oxygen supplies for ethane activation. Using in situ synchrotron characterization and density functional theory (DFT) calculations, we found that the electronic properties of oxygen species influence the selective cleavage of C-H/C-C bonds in ethane, with electron-deficient oxygen over the metal (or alloy) surface promoting nonselective bond scission to produce syngas and electron-enriched oxygen over the metal oxide/metal interface enhancing selective C-H scission to yield ethylene. Here, we further demonstrate that the preferred structures of the catalyst surfaces, either alloy surfaces or metal oxide/metal inverse interfaces, can be controlled through the appropriate choice of metal combinations and their atomic ratios. Through a comprehensive comparison of experimental results and DFT calculations, the selectivity of C-C/C-H bond scission is correlated with the thermodynamically favorable bimetallic-derived structures (i.e., alloy surfaces or metal oxide/metal inverse interfaces) under reaction conditions over a wide range of bimetallic catalysts. These findings not only offer structural and mechanistic insights into bimetallic-derived catalysts but also provide design principles for selective catalysts for CO 2 -assisted activation of ethane and other light alkanes. This Account concludes by discussing challenges and opportunities in designing advanced bimetallic-derived catalysts, incorporating new reaction chemistries for other products, employing precise synthesis strategies for well-defined structures with optimized site densities, and leveraging time/spatial/energy-resolved in situ spectroscopy/scattering/microscopy techniques for comprehensive structural analysis. The research methodologies established here are helpful for the investigation of dynamic alloy and interfacial structures and should inspire more efforts toward the simultaneous upgrading of CO 2 and shale gas.

03 NATURAL GAS↗
DOE OSTI2021

Structure-property relationships and mobility optimization in sputtered La-doped BaSn O 3 films: Toward 100cm 2 V -1 s -1

he wide band gap semiconducting perovskite BaSnO 3 is of high current interest due to outstanding room temperature mobility at high electron density, fueled by potential applications in oxide, transparent, and power electronics. Due in part to a lack of lattice-matched substrates, BaSnO 3 thin films suffer from high defect densities, however, limiting electron mobility. Additionally, the vast majority of BaSnO 3 thin film research has focused on pulsed laser deposition or molecular beam epitaxy. In this work, we present an exhaustive optimization of the mobility of Ba 0.98 La 0.02 SnO 3 films grown by a scalable, high-throughput method: high-pressure-oxygen sputter deposition. Considering target synthesis conditions, substrate selection, buffer layer structure, deposition temperature, deposition rate, thickness, and postdeposition annealing conditions, and by combining high-resolution x-ray diffraction, reciprocal space mapping, rocking curve analysis, scanning transmission electron microscopy, atomic force microscopy, and temperature-dependent electronic transport measurements, detailed understanding of synthesis-structure-property relationships is attained. Optimized room temperature mobility of 96 cm 2 V –1 s –1 is achieved in vacuum-annealed GdScO 3 (110)/BaSnO 3 (120 nm)/Ba 0.98 La 0.02 SnO 3 (200 nm) heterostructures, as well as 92 cm 2 V –1 s –1 on unbuffered substrates and 87 2 V –1 s –1 without postdeposition annealing. These results, including important trends in defect densities and a surprising dependence of mobility on lattice mismatch, substantially expand the understanding of the interplay between deposition conditions, microstructure, and transport in doped BaSnO 3 films, establishing competitive mobilities in films fabricated via a scalable, high-throughput, industry-standard technique.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2025

Optimizing Management of Persistent Data Structures in High-Performance Analytics

Large-scale data analytics workflows ingest massive input data into various data structures, including graphs and key-value datastores. These data structures undergo multiple transformations and computations and are typically reused in incremental and iterative analytics workflows. Persisting in-memory views of these data structures enables reusing them beyond the scope of a single program run while avoiding repetitive raw data ingestion overheads. Memory-mapped I/O enables persisting in-memory data structures without data serialization and deserialization overheads. However, memory-mapped I/O lacks the key feature of persisting consistent snapshots of these data structures for incremental ingestion and processing. The obstacles to efficient virtual memory snapshots using memory-mapped I/O include background writebacks outside the application’s control, and the significantly high storage footprint of such snapshots. To address these limitations, we present Privateer, a memory and storage management tool that enables storage-efficient virtual memory snapshotting while also optimizing snapshot I/O performance. Here, we integrated Privateer into Metall, a state-of-the-art persistent memory allocator for C++, and the Lightning Memory-Mapped Database (LMDB), a widely-used key-value datastore in data analytics and machine learning. Privateer optimized application performance by 1.22× when storing data structure snapshots to node-local storage, and up to 16.7× when storing snapshots to a parallel file system. Privateer also optimizes storage efficiency of incremental data structure snapshots by up to 11× using data deduplication and compression.

Computer science↗
DOE OSTI2020

Controlling Ion Coordination Structure and Diffusion Kinetics for Optimized Electrode-Electrolyte Interphases and High Performance Si Anodes

The cycling performance of batteries is largely determined by electrode-electrolyte interphase associated with the chemical and electrochemical properties of electrolyte salts and solvents. In this work, we used a localized high concentration electrolyte (LHCE) that enables high performance of Si anodes as a model system and investigated the scientific mechanism behind the optimization of electrolyte. The correlation between electrode (cathode/anode)-electrolyte interphase and ion coordination structure and diffusion kinetics were elucidated systematically. Among all the LHCEs tested, the one with 1.8M LiFSI concentration and 1:2 molar ratio of carbonate solvents and fluorinated diluents has the highest proportion of solvent-separated ion pairs and contact ion pairs and fastest ion diffusion. It enables the most stable electrode-electrolyte interphase and hence the best Si anode performance. These results reveal the fundamental mechanism behind the stability of LHCEs and provide guidance on the new electrolyte design for Si anodes and other battery systems.

Jia, Haiping↗
DOE OSTI2023

Alkali-silica reaction expansion model for confined concrete with stress-dependency and casting direction anisotropy

Alkali-silica reaction (ASR) is a deleterious chemical reaction between alkali hydroxyl ions and types of silica found in some aggregates of concrete. Owners and regulators of nuclear power plants aim to ensure the safety of the concrete structures with optimal maintenance strategies. A new model was developed for predicting the expansion of concrete structures affected by alkali-silica reaction. The model includes a novel combination of existing models as an alkali-silica reaction advancement model, a casting direction anisotropic expansion model, a stress-dependent anisotropic expansion model, and a material property evolution model dependent on the degree of ASR expansion. The model parameters were calibrated based on existing literature data and data generated by previous efforts of this study. The calibrated model was then validated with the experiments carried out in previous efforts of this study. The model was shown to accurately predict the ASR-expansion of large-scale reinforced concrete specimens with confinement.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2026

Microstructure‐Informed Analysis Framework for Lattice Structures: Guiding Topology‐Material Synergy in Titanium Alloys

In this work we discuss a microstructure‐informed analysis framework for lattice structures that maps the material's microstructural response to guide topology selection and mechanical performance optimization. By coupling geometrical topology with intrinsic material behavior, we demonstrate how anisotropic microstructural response can inform the design of optimized lattice structures. To illustrate this concept, we focus on two distinct classes of titanium alloys: Ti5553 (Ti‐5Al‐5Mo‐5V‐3Cr wt%), which exhibits a predominantly ‐phase microstructure, and Ti64 (Ti‐6Al‐4V wt%), which features a dual‐phase structure. These alloys exhibit markedly different mechanical responses under multiaxial loading in “fully dense” solid form. The strut‐level stress analysis of these alloys reveals how specific microstructural characteristics can guide the selection of appropriate lattice topologies. Two representative lattice configurations, one stretching‐dominated and one bending‐dominated, are evaluated under identical loading conditions to explore how microstructure‐driven design can lead to topology choices that are better suited to accommodate shear or other critical local stress states, thereby enhancing mechanical performance. A strut‐level mechanics‐based analysis is performed to evaluate shear stress distribution and highlight the role of topology‐microstructure synergy and compatibility in determining overall lattice behavior. The findings emphasize the importance of designing structures that are both load‐aware and microstructure‐responsive, enabling more effective material utilization in advanced engineering applications.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2025

First-Principles Studies on Sc 2 RuZ (Z = Si, Ge, Sn) Inverse Heusler Alloys: Structural, Electronic, and Transport Properties

The continuous demand for efficient, nontoxic, and thermally stable materials for room-temperature energy conversion motivates the exploration of novel thermoelectric systems beyond the traditional magnetic Heusler alloys. While full and half-Heusler compounds, especially Co-, Ni-, and Mn-based systems, have demonstrated promising thermoelectric properties, their typically high operating temperatures and magnetic complexities limit their applicability in ambient thermal management. In this context, we investigate whether Sc-based inverse Heusler alloys can offer a viable nonmagnetic alternative with competitive thermoelectric performance. In this work, we perform a systematic first-principles study of the inverse Heusler compounds Sc 2 RuZ (Z = Si, Ge, Sn), focusing on their structural, electronic, mechanical, and thermodynamic-thermoelectric properties. Density Functional Theory (DFT) was employed to compute optimized lattice structures and band dispersion, while dynamical stability was assessed via phonon calculations. Thermoelectric transport coefficients, including Seebeck coefficient, electrical conductivity, and thermal conductivity, were estimated using the semiclassical Boltzmann transport theory within the constant relaxation time approximation. Our results show that all Sc 2 RuZ compounds are thermodynamically stable semiconductors with indirect band gaps of 0.12–0.16 eV and exhibit high elastic moduli, especially Sc 2 RuSn, which demonstrates superior stiffness and incompressibility. Importantly, all compounds display promising room-temperature thermoelectric characteristics, including high Seebeck coefficients and power factors. These findings reveal that Sc 2 RuZ alloys represent a rare class of stable, nonmagnetic inverse Heusler semiconductors with intrinsic thermoelectric potential at room temperature, unlike many existing Heusler systems optimized for spintronics or high-temperature operation. This work expands the known design space for Heusler-based thermoelectrics and offers a theoretical basis for experimental realization of efficient, low-temperature, nonmagnetic thermoelectric materials.

alloys↗
DOE OSTI2024

Performance Analysis of an Optimization Algorithm for Metamaterial Design on the Integrated High-Performance Computing and Quantum Systems

Optimizing metamaterials with complex geometries is a big challenge. Although an active learning algorithm, combining machine learning (ML), quantum computing, and optical simulation, has emerged as an efficient optimization tool, it still faces difficulties in optimizing complex structures that have potentially high performance. In this work, we comprehensively analyze the performance of an optimization algorithm for metamaterial design on the integrated HPC and quantum systems. We demonstrate significant time advantages through message-passing interface (MPI) parallelization on the high-performance computing (HPC) system showing approximately 54% faster ML tasks and 67 times faster optical simulation against serial workloads. Furthermore, we analyze the performance of a quantum algorithm designed for optimization, which runs with various quantum simulators on a local computer or HPC-quantum system. Results showcase ~24 times speedup when executing the optimization algorithm on the HPC-quantum hybrid system. This study paves a way to optimize complex metamaterials using the integrated HPC-quantum system.

Kim, Seongmin↗
DOE OSTI2022

Component-wise reduced-order model design optimization such as for lattice design optimization

Systems and methods for optimizing a lattice structure design are disclosed herein. In some embodiments, a method for optimizing a lattice structure design can include (i) modeling the lattice structure with a component-wise reduced-order model (CWROM) and (ii) optimizing the CWROM based on a selected criterion using a topology optimization algorithm for lattice design. The selected criterion can include a boundary condition and a load applied to the lattice structure. By modeling the lattice structure as a CWROM, the optimization process can be very fast while still permitting the accurate computation of physical quantities of the lattice structure.

Choi, Youngsoo↗
DOE OSTI2021

X-ray Crystal Structure of Thorium Tetrahydroborate, Th(BH 4 ) 4 , and Computational Studies of An(BH 4 ) 4 (An = Th, U)

Here the crystal structure of Th(BH 4 ) 4 is described. Two of the four BH 4 – ions are terminal and tridentate (κ 3 ), whereas the other two bridge between neighboring Th IV centers in a κ 2 ,κ 2 (i.e., bis-bidentate) fashion. Thus, each thorium center is bound to six BH 4 – groups by 14 Th–H bonds. The six boron atoms describe a distorted octahedron in which the κ 3 -BH 4 – ions are mutually cis; the 14 ligating hydrogen atoms define a highly distorted bicapped hexagonal antiprism. The thorium centers are linked into a polymer consisting of interconnected helical chains wound about 4-fold screw axes. The structures of An(BH 4 ) 4 (An = Th, U) were also investigated by DFT. The geometries of [An(BH 4 ) 6 ] 2– , [An3(BH 4 ) 16 ] 4– , and [An 5 (BH 4 ) 26 ] 6– fragments of the polymeric structures were optimized at the B3LYP and/or PBE levels. Most calculated geometries are 14-coordinate and agree with the experimental structures, but isolated [Th(BH 4 ) 6 ] 2– units are predicted to feature 16-coordinate Th IV centers.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2024

Structural and functional insights into the interaction between the bacteriophage T4 DNA processing proteins gp32 and Dda

Abstract Bacteriophage T4 is a classic model system for studying the mechanisms of DNA processing. A key protein in T4 DNA processing is the gp32 single-stranded DNA-binding protein. gp32 has two key functions: it binds cooperatively to single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) to protect it from nucleases and remove regions of secondary structure, and it recruits proteins to initiate DNA processes including replication and repair. Dda is a T4 helicase recruited by gp32, and we purified and crystallized a gp32–Dda–ssDNA complex. The low-resolution structure revealed how the C-terminus of gp32 engages Dda. Analytical ultracentrifugation analyses were consistent with the crystal structure. An optimal Dda binding peptide from the gp32 C-terminus was identified using surface plasmon resonance. The crystal structure of the Dda–peptide complex was consistent with the corresponding interaction in the gp32–Dda–ssDNA structure. A Dda-dependent DNA unwinding assay supported the structural conclusions and confirmed that the bound gp32 sequesters the ssDNA generated by Dda. The structure of the gp32–Dda–ssDNA complex, together with the known structure of the gp32 body, reveals the entire ssDNA binding surface of gp32. gp32–Dda–ssDNA complexes in the crystal are connected by the N-terminal region of one gp32 binding to an adjacent gp32, and this provides key insights into this interaction.

Biochemistry & Molecular Biology↗
DOE OSTI2020

The hTERT core promoter forms three parallel G-quadruplexes

The structure of the 68 nt sequence with G-quadruplex forming potential within the hTERT promoter is disputed. One model features a structure with three stacked parallel G-quadruplex units, while another features an unusual duplex hairpin structure adjoined to two stacked parallel and antiparallel quadruplexes. We report here the results of an integrated structural biology study designed to distinguish between these possibilities. As part of our study, we designed a sequence with an optimized hairpin structure and show that its biophysical and biochemical properties are inconsistent with the structure formed by the hTERT wild-type sequence. By using circular dichroism, thermal denaturation, nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, analytical ultracentrifugation, small-angle X-ray scattering, molecular dynamics simulations and a DNase I cleavage assay we found that the wild type hTERT core promoter folds into a stacked, three-parallel G-quadruplex structure. The hairpin structure is inconsistent with all of our experimental data obtained with the wild-type sequence. All-atom models for both structures were constructed using molecular dynamics simulations. These models accurately predicted the experimental hydrodynamic properties measured for each structure. We found with certainty that the wild-type hTERT promoter sequence does not form a hairpin structure in solution, but rather folds into a compact stacked three-G-quadruplex conformation.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2022

Tuning the Solvation Structure in Aqueous Zinc Batteries to Maximize Zn-Ion Intercalation and Optimize Dendrite-Free Zinc Plating

Aqueous zinc batteries are recognized to suffer from H + /Zn 2+ coinsertion in the cathode, but few approaches have been reported to suppress deleterious H + intercalation. We realize this goal by tuning the solvation structure, using LiV 2 (PO 4 ) 3 (LVP) as a model cathode. Phase conversion of LVP induced by H + intercalation is observed in 4 m Zn(OTf) 2 , whereas dominant Zn 2+ insertion is confirmed in a ZnCl 2 water-in-salt electrolyte (WiSE). This disparity is ascribed to the complete absence of free water and a strong Zn 2+ –H 2 O interaction in the latter that interrupts the H 2 O hydrogen bonding network, thus suppressing H + intercalation. On the basis of this strategy, a novel PEG-based hybrid electrolyte is designed to replace the corrosive ZnCl2 WiSE. This system exhibits an optimized Zn 2+ solvation sheath with a similar low free water content, showing not only much better suppression of H + intercalation but also highly reversible Zn plating/stripping with a CE of ~99.7% over 150 cycles.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2020

STOCHASTIC OPTIMIZATION FOR LONG TERM CAPITAL STRUCTURES, SYSTEMS, AND COMPONENTS REFURBISHMENT AND REPLACEMENT

As commercial nuclear power plants (NPPs) pursue extended plant operations in the form of Second License Renewals (SLRs), opportunities exist for these plants to provide capital investments to ensure long-term, safe, and economic performance. Several utilities have already announced their intention to pursue extended operations for one or more of their NPPs via SLR2. The goal of this research is to develop a riskinformed approach to evaluate and prioritize plant capital investments made in preparation for, and during the period of, extended plant operations to support decisions in NPP operations. In order to prioritize project selection via a riskinformed approach we developed a single decision-making tool that integrates safety/reliability, cost, and stochastic optimization models to provide users with data analysis capabilities to more cost effectively manage plant assets. Both stochastic analysis methods—such as Monte Carlo-based sampling strategies—and multi-stage stochastic optimization strategies are employed to provide priority lists to decisionmakers in support of risk-informed decisions. We applied the proposed method to a trial application of projected replacement/refurbishment expenditures for plant capital assets (i.e., Structures, Systems, and Components [SSCs]). The objective is to optimize the SSC replacement/refurbishment schedule in terms of economic constraints, data uncertainties, and SSC reliability data, as well to generate a priority list for maximizing returns on investment.

42 ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2023

Calcium Cosalt Addition to Alter the Cation Solvation Structure and Enhance the Ca Metal Anode Performance

Accessing the energy density and sustainability of calcium metal batteries requires mastering reversible calcium electrodeposition through electrolyte design. Several electrolytes support reversible, ambient temperature deposition but at utilization and rate too low for practical applications. These challenges stem from solvation structures characterized by either high barriers for cation desolvation or thermodynamic instability, leading to parasitic decomposition of the salt and solvent. The optimal solvation structure for the effective delivery of calcium to the electrode interface is not known. In this work, we show that adding a relatively small amount of a weakly associating calcium salt (calcium carba-closo-dodecaborate) to an otherwise strongly associated solution (calcium borohydride in tetrahydrofuran) produces a surprising population of fully solvent-coordinated Ca2+ cations in the form of solvent-separated ion pairs (SSIPs). We further demonstrate that the formation of these SSIPs beneficially impacts the kinetics and thermodynamics of calcium electrodeposition, revealing the unexpected finding that direct coordination of Ca2+ by the BH4– anion limits the electrodeposition process. These findings reveal how the competition between solvent and anion coordination to Ca2+ affects calcium deposition kinetics and cycling stability, setting the stage for a new calcium electrolyte design based on mixed anion electrolytes.

Landers, Alan T.↗
DOE OSTI2022

Electronic and vibrational properties of bulk Cr 2 Ge 2 Te 6 from first-principles calculations

Here we use density functional theory based ab initio calculations to investigate the structural, vibrational, magnetic, and electronic properties of the layered ferromagnet Cr 2 Ge 2 Te 6 (CGT) that has attracted attention for potential spintronic applications. We optimize the structure for a fixed c/a ratio. Our results are in excellent agreement with experimental data on structure, phonons, and electronic properties. The use of van der Waals interactions and relativistic spin-orbit coupling yields accurate lattice constants and interlayer distances. Simultaneously, the adopted theoretical methods lead to a rigorous description of the vibrational normal modes, as well as the valence bands, that are in excellent agreement with Raman spectroscopy and angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy spectra, respectively. The magnetic moment is slightly overestimated, and the magnetic anisotropy has the correct sign but is greater in magnitude than that in experiment. We find that inclusion of the on-site Coulomb repulsion on Cr−3d orbitals worsens agreement with experiment, in contrast to previous studies. Our results provide a path toward ab initio analysis of magnetic heterostructures based on CGT.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2022

OPTIMIZATION OF A NUCLEAR VESSEL OUTLET FOR INCIDENT MONITORING

Classical nuclear core fluidic design techniques require improvement to better align with modern technological innovations. The US Department of Energy’s Office of Nuclear Energy (DOE-NE) Transformational Challenge Reactor (TCR) program is deploying additive manufacturing and advanced modeling and simulation to reimagine these designs. With the aid of modern computing power, computerized design optimization can be implemented to remove unwanted pressure drop while simultaneously optimizing flow structures, resulting in new opportunities to enable advanced instrumentation and monitoring capabilities.Previous development of geometric specifications for the TCR pressure vessel’s outlet plenum used design optimization to (1) limit pressure losses below 3.5 kPa (~0.5 psi) and (2) create a fluidic plane in which the temperature variation would not exceed ±5°C. This significant limit of the allowable pressure drop stems from the overarching goal of the TCR program to apply cutting edge techniques and unconventional thinking to demonstrate potential opportunities in additive manufacturing (AM).This paper expands the previous work by optimizing thermowell locations for robust measurements by explicitly modeling them and the resulting flow impacts. Additionally, a single core coolant channel was chosen to represent an event that causes an increased bulk flow temperature increase of 100°C.High fidelity unsteady Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes (URANS) simulations of the conjugate heat transfer problem were run in Siemen’s Star-CCM+ for this study. Next, the bulk flow temperature of a single coolant channel was increased by 100°C and was allowed to converge again. Finally, statistical analysis using a sequential probability ratio test (SPRT) was used to determine the elapsed time the thermocouples took to discover the increased bulk flow temperature.

See, Nate↗