Search NASA⌕ Search

SEARCH · Search NASA

Results for “Marine Observations”

Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

Quote a phrase for an exact phrase match. Source license links do not imply unrestricted reuse.

At least 271 records · Page 15
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2025

Satellite remote sensing for environmental sustainable development goals: A review of applications for terrestrial and marine protected areas

With few years left to achieve the vital United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), member nations must urgently leverage technological advancements in environmental monitoring to succeed. Remote sensing now provides decades of global observations at a variety of spatio-temporal scales and a litany of data products to guide comprehensive measures for climate action, and aquatic and terrestrial biota preservation. Protected areas, such as national parks and wildlife preserves, represent largely untapped resources for both applying robust conservation measures and testing ambitious new approaches to sustainable development that could jumpstart the much-needed adoption of strategies to efficiently pursue global sustainability. This review summarizes recent demonstrated utilities of remotely sensed data applied to protected areas for research related to SDG goals 13, 14, and 15: “Climate Action”, “Life below Water”, and “Life on Land”. We identify successful uses of such data for each SDG, identify areas for improvement, and provide recommendations from the literature on how to expand what others have done to achieve lofty goals with global impact. We demonstrate that remote sensing provides a valuable tool for achieving SDGs as it facilitates monitoring vegetation health, water quality and condition, and climate variables at large spatial and fine temporal scales, while also evaluating the effectiveness of management and conservation practices. Issues remain, however, in that there is currently no reference from which to relate goal progress to human livelihoods. Further, the current relationship between remotely sensed indices and ecological services that determine sustainable development omit steps that would establish this connection.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2024

Maximizing Marine Carbon Removal by Coupling Electrochemical and Biological Methods

Integrated development of emerging marine decarbonization strategies offers the possibility of lowering CO2 removal costs and enabling their widespread deployment. In this study we examine the feasibility and benefits of coupling electrochemical and biological marine carbon removal strategies. Bipolar membrane electrodialysis (BPMED) is used to generate acid and alkalinity from seawater and electricity, and the alkalinity is returned to the ocean for indirect CO2 removal from the atmosphere, but the acid stream is a waste product. Considering the large-scale of CO2 removal necessary, the acid storage, neutralization, and disposal have prohibitive costs and carbon footprint. Here we investigate the feasibility to valorize the acid stream to enhance the growth and CO2 uptake through photosynthesis in the fast-growing marine phytoplankter Picochlorum celeri. When added to active algae cultures, the BPMED-generated acidified seawater alters the carbonate-bicarbonate equilibrium thereby increasing the bioavailability of CO2 and the observed growth rates. Additions of up to 2 mM H+ from BPMED effluent streams increased algal productivity up to 3-fold. A high-level analysis conducted based on experimental data to estimate the potential of sequestered CO2 emissions when compared to conventional commercial means of acid utilization or disposal, is estimated to be ~30 kgCO2 / kgacid. Through further development and optimization in terms of choice of algal species, growth conditions, acid addition rates, etc. the combined electrochemical-biological approach has the potential to achieve higher net CO2 removal.

carbon dioxide, marine, marine algae↗
DOE OSTI2021

Influence of biogenic emissions from boreal forests on aerosol–cloud interactions

Boreal forest acts as a carbon sink and contributes to the formation of secondary organic aerosols via emission of aerosol precursor compounds. However, these influences on the climate system are poorly quantified. Here we show direct observational evidence that aerosol emissions from the boreal forest biosphere influence warm cloud microphysics and cloud-aerosol interactions in a scale-dependent and highly dynamic manner. Analyses of in situ and ground-based remote-sensing observations from the SMEAR II station in Finland, conducted over eight months in 2014, reveal substantial increases in aerosol load over the forest one to three days after aerosol-poor marine air enters the forest environment. We find that these changes are consistent with secondary organic aerosol formation and, together with water-vapour emissions from evapotranspiration, are associated with changes in the radiative properties of warm, low-level clouds. Here, the feedbacks between boreal forest emissions and aerosol-cloud interactions and the highly dynamic nature of these interactions in air transported over the forest over timescales of several days suggest boreal forests have the potential to mitigate climate change on a continental scale. Our findings suggest that even small changes in aerosol precursor emissions, whether due to changing climatic or anthropogenic factors, may substantially modify the radiative properties of clouds in moderately polluted environments. Emissions from the boreal forest biosphere can substantially increase aerosol load above the forest and influence the radiative properties of clouds, according to analysis of observations from a monitoring station in Finland.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2020

Long-Term Trends for Marine Sulfur Aerosol in the Alaskan Arctic and Relationships With Temperature

Marine aerosol plays a vital role in cloud-aerosol interactions during summer in the Arctic. The recent rise in temperature and decrease in sea ice extent have the potential to impact marine biogenic sources. Compounds like methanesulfonic acid (MSA) and non-sea-salt sulfate (nss-SO 4 2- ), oxidation products of dimethyl sulfide (DMS) emitted by marine primary producers, are likely to increase in concentration. Long-term studies are vital to understand these changes in marine sulfur aerosol and potential interactions with Arctic climate. Samples were collected over three summers at two coastal sites on the North Slope of Alaska (Utqiagvik and Oliktok Point). MSA concentrations followed previously reported seasonal trends, with evidence of high marine primary productivity influencing both sites. When added to an additional data set collected at Utqiagvik, an increase in MSA concentration of + 2.5% per year and an increase in nss-SO 4 2- of + 2.1% per year are observed for the summer season over the 20-year record (1998–2017). This study identifies ambient air temperature as a strong factor for MSA, likely related to a combination of interrelated factors including warmer sea surface temperature, reduced sea ice, and temperature-dependent chemical reactions. Analysis of individual particles at Oliktok Point, within the North Slope of Alaska oil fields, showed evidence of condensation of MSA onto anthropogenic particles, highlighting the connection between marine and oil field emissions and secondary organic aerosol. Finally, this study shows the continued importance of understanding MSA in the Arctic while highlighting the need for further research into its seasonal relationship with organic carbon.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2024

Environment-specific virocell metabolic reprogramming

Abstract Viruses impact microbial systems through killing hosts, horizontal gene transfer, and altering cellular metabolism, consequently impacting nutrient cycles. A virus-infected cell, a “virocell,” is distinct from its uninfected sister cell as the virus commandeers cellular machinery to produce viruses rather than replicate cells. Problematically, virocell responses to the nutrient-limited conditions that abound in nature are poorly understood. Here we used a systems biology approach to investigate virocell metabolic reprogramming under nutrient limitation. Using transcriptomics, proteomics, lipidomics, and endo- and exo-metabolomics, we assessed how low phosphate (low-P) conditions impacted virocells of a marine Pseudoalteromonas host when independently infected by two unrelated phages (HP1 and HS2). With the combined stresses of infection and nutrient limitation, a set of nested responses were observed. First, low-P imposed common cellular responses on all cells (virocells and uninfected cells), including activating the canonical P-stress response, and decreasing transcription, translation, and extracellular organic matter consumption. Second, low-P imposed infection-specific responses (for both virocells), including enhancing nitrogen assimilation and fatty acid degradation, and decreasing extracellular lipid relative abundance. Third, low-P suggested virocell-specific strategies. Specifically, HS2-virocells regulated gene expression by increasing transcription and ribosomal protein production, whereas HP1-virocells accumulated host proteins, decreased extracellular peptide relative abundance, and invested in broader energy and resource acquisition. These results suggest that although environmental conditions shape metabolism in common ways regardless of infection, virocell-specific strategies exist to support viral replication during nutrient limitation, and a framework now exists for identifying metabolic strategies of nutrient-limited virocells in nature.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2023

Natural marine cloud brightening in the Southern Ocean

Abstract. The number of cloud droplets per unit volume (Nd) is a fundamentally important property of marine boundary layer (MBL) liquid clouds that, at constant liquid water path, exerts considerable controls on albedo. Past work has shown that regional Nd has a direct correlation to marine primary productivity (PP) because of the role of seasonally varying, biogenically derived precursor gases in modulating secondary aerosol properties. These linkages are thought to be observable over the high-latitude oceans, where strong seasonal variability in aerosol and meteorology covary in mostly pristine environments. Here, we examine Nd variability derived from 5 years of MODIS Level 2-derived cloud properties in a broad region of the summer eastern Southern Ocean and adjacent marginal seas. We demonstrate latitudinal, longitudinal and temporal gradients in Nd that are strongly correlated with the passage of air masses over high-PP waters that are mostly concentrated along the Antarctic Shelf poleward of 60∘ S. We find that the albedo of MBL clouds in the latitudes south of 60∘ S is significantly higher than similar liquid water path (LWP) clouds north of this latitude.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2023

Evaluation of four ground-based retrievals of cloud droplet number concentration in marine stratocumulus with aircraft in situ measurements

Abstract. Cloud droplet number concentration (Nd) is crucial for understanding aerosol–cloud interactions (ACI) and associated radiative effects. We present evaluations of four ground-based Nd retrievals based on comprehensive datasets from the Atmospheric Radiation Measurement (ARM) Aerosol and Cloud Experiments in the Eastern North Atlantic (ACE-ENA) field campaign. The Nd retrieval methods use ARM ENA observatory ground-based remote sensing observations from a micropulse lidar, Raman lidar, cloud radar, and the ARM NDROP (Droplet Number Concentration) value-added product (VAP), all of which also retrieve cloud effective radius (re). The retrievals are compared against aircraft measurements from the fast cloud droplet probe (FCDP) and the cloud and aerosol spectrometer (CAS) obtained from low-level marine boundary layer clouds on 12 flight days during summer and winter seasons. Additionally, the in situ measurements are used to validate the assumptions and characterizations used in the retrieval algorithms. Statistical comparisons of the probability distribution function (PDF) of the Nd and cloud re retrievals with aircraft measurements demonstrate that these retrievals align well with in situ measurements for overcast clouds, but they may substantially differ for broken clouds or clouds with low liquid water path (LWP). The retrievals are applied to 4 years of ground-based remote sensing measurements of overcast marine boundary layer clouds at the ARM ENA observatory to find that Nd (re) values exhibit seasonal variations, with higher (lower) values during the summer season and lower (higher) values during the winter season. The ensemble of various retrievals using different measurements and retrieval algorithms such as those in this paper can help to quantify Nd retrieval uncertainties and identify reliable Nd retrieval scenarios. Of the retrieval methods, we recommend using the micropulse lidar-based method. This method has good agreement with in situ measurements, less sensitivity to issues arising from precipitation and low cloud LWP and/or optical depth, and broad applicability by functioning for both daytime and nighttime conditions.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2020

Turbulent kinetic energy over large offshore wind farms observed and simulated by the mesoscale model WRF (3.8.1)

Abstract. Wind farms affect local weather and microclimates;hence, parameterizations of their effects have been developed for numerical weather prediction models.While most wind farm parameterizations (WFPs) include drag effects of wind farms, models differ on whether or not an additionalturbulent kinetic energy (TKE) source should be included in theseparameterizations to simulate the impact of wind farms on the boundary layer.Therefore, we use aircraft measurements above large offshore wind farms in stable conditions to evaluateWFP choices. Of the three case studies we examine, we find the simulated ambient backgroundflow to agree with observations of temperature stratification and winds. This agreement allows us toexplore the sensitivity of simulated wind farm effects with respect to modeling choicessuch as whether or not to include a TKE source, horizontal resolution, vertical resolutionand advection of TKE. For a stably stratified marine atmospheric boundary layer (MABL), a TKE source and a horizontal resolutionon the order of 5 km or finer are necessary to represent the impact of offshore wind farms on the MABL.Additionally, TKE advection results in excessively reduced TKE over the wind farms, which in turn causesan underestimation of the wind speed deficit above the wind farm. Furthermore, using fine verticalresolution increases the agreement of the simulated wind speed with satellite observations of surface wind speed.

17 WIND ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2023

Evaluation of Four Ground-based Retrievals of Cloud Droplet Number Concentration in Marine Stratocumulus with Aircraft In Situ Measurements

Cloud droplet number concentration (N d ) is crucial for understanding aerosol-cloud interactions (ACI) and associated radiative effects. We present evaluations of four ground-based N d retrievals based on comprehensive datasets from the Atmospheric Radiation Measurements (ARM) Aerosol and Cloud Experiments in the Eastern North Atlantic (ACE-ENA) field campaign. The N d retrieval methods use ARM ENA observatory ground-based remote sensing observations from a Micropulse lidar, Raman lidar, cloud radar, and the ARM NDROP Value-added Product (VAP), all of which also retrieve cloud effective radius (r e ). The retrievals are compared against aircraft measurements from the Fast-Cloud Droplet Probe (FCDP) and the Cloud and Aerosol Spectrometer (CAS) obtained from low-level marine boundary layer clouds on 12 flight days during summer and winter seasons. Additionally, the in situ measurements are used to validate the assumptions and characterizations used in the retrieval algorithms. Statistical comparisons of the probability distribution function (PDF) of the N d and cloud r e retrievals with aircraft measurements demonstrate that these retrievals align well with in situ measurements for overcast clouds, but they may substantially differ for broken clouds or clouds with low liquid water path (LWP). The retrievals are applied to four years of ground-based remote sensing measurements of overcast marine boundary layer clouds at the ARM ENA observatory to find that N d (r e ) values exhibit seasonal variations, with higher (lower) values during the summer season and lower (higher) values during the winter season. The ensemble of various retrievals using different measurements and retrieval algorithms such as those in this paper can help to quantify N d retrieval uncertainties and identify reliable N d retrieval scenarios. Of the retrieval methods, we recommend using the using the Micropulse lidar-based method given its good agreement with in situ measurements, it has less sensitivity to issues arising from precipitation and low cloud LWP/optical depth, and it has broad applicability by functioning for both day and nighttime conditions.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2021

A Parameterization of Turbulent Dissipation and Pressure Damping Time Scales in Stably Stratified Inversions, and its Effects on Low Clouds in Global Simulations

Abstract It is difficult for coarse‐resolution global models of the atmosphere to accurately simulate the observed distribution of low clouds. In particular, it is difficult for moist turbulence closure models to simulate sufficiently bright near‐coastal stratocumulus (Sc) without simulating overly bright marine shallow cumuli (Cu). To parameterize bright Sc, a turbulence parameterization must damp the turbulent fluxes of heat and moisture above cloud top in order to prevent excessive entrainment of dry air into cloud top. To parameterize dim shallow Cu, the subgrid variances of temperature and moisture must remain large, in order to permit partial cloudiness. However, damping the fluxes but not the variances just above cloud top is difficult if a parameterization uses a single “master” time scale to damp both. In nature, the above‐cloud fluxes are damped by pressure fluctuations, whereas scalar variances are damped by a different process, namely, turbulent dissipation. In a stably stratified inversion above cloud, pressure damping is large but turbulent dissipation is small. To avoid this problem, a multitime scale parameterization for damping has been developed. The damping parameterization has been implemented in a global model and evaluated. The parameterization is capable of dimming shallow Cu while producing adequately bright Sc.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2025

Seismic Tremors From Sea‐Landfast Ice Interactions Near Utqiaġvik, Alaska

The mechanical state of Arctic landfast sea ice remains poorly constrained due to limited observations. This study investigates interactions between drifting sea ice and the coastal landfast ice near Utqiaġvik, Alaska by integrating data from broadband seismometer, Distributed Acoustic Sensing, and marine radar. We find that decreases in sea ice velocity, marking transitions from drift to compressive contact, coincide with increased seismic energy. Tremor characteristics vary seasonally with ice conditions. In January, dense ice packs produced sustained harmonic tremors with gliding and U-shaped spectral features, consistent with repetitive stick-slip motion at the ice–ice or ice–ground interface under velocity-weakening friction. In April, smaller fragmented floes generated short-lived, chaotic tremors linked to brittle failure and spatially dispersed impacts. These findings demonstrate that seismic tremors encode the mechanical properties of interacting ice, offering a new tool to distinguish ice regimes and monitor evolving Arctic coastal dynamics under climate change.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2021

Early-stage dynamics of chloride ion–pumping rhodopsin revealed by a femtosecond X-ray laser

Chloride ion–pumping rhodopsin (ClR) in some marine bacteria utilizes light energy to actively transport Cl – into cells. How the ClR initiates the transport is elusive. Here, we show the dynamics of ion transport observed with time-resolved serial femtosecond (fs) crystallography using the Linac Coherent Light Source. X-ray pulses captured structural changes in ClR upon flash illumination with a 550 nm fs-pumping laser. High-resolution structures for five time points (dark to 100 ps after flashing) reveal complex and coordinated dynamics comprising retinal isomerization, water molecule rearrangement, and conformational changes of various residues. Combining data from time-resolved spectroscopy experiments and molecular dynamics simulations, this study reveals that the chloride ion close to the Schiff base undergoes a dissociation–diffusion process upon light-triggered retinal isomerization.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2023

African smoke particles act as cloud condensation nuclei in the wintertime tropical North Atlantic boundary layer over Barbados

Abstract. The number concentration and properties of aerosol particles serving as cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) are important for understanding cloud properties, including in the tropical Atlantic marine boundary layer (MBL), where marine cumulus clouds reflect incoming solar radiation and obscure the low-albedo ocean surface. Studies linking aerosol source, composition, and water uptake properties in this region have been conducted primarily during the summertime dust transport season, despite the region receiving a variety of aerosol particle types throughout the year. In this study, we compare size-resolved aerosol chemical composition data to the hygroscopicity parameter κ derived from size-resolved CCN measurements made during the Elucidating the Role of Clouds–Circulation Coupling in Climate (EUREC4A) and Atlantic Tradewind Ocean-Atmosphere Mesoscale Interaction Campaign (ATOMIC) campaigns from January to February 2020. We observed unexpected periods of wintertime long-range transport of African smoke and dust to Barbados. During these periods, the accumulation-mode aerosol particle and CCN number concentrations as well as the proportions of dust and smoke particles increased, whereas the average κ slightly decreased (κ=0.46±0.10) from marine background conditions (κ=0.52±0.09) when the submicron particles were mostly composed of marine organics and sulfate. Size-resolved chemical analysis shows that smoke particles were the major contributor to the accumulation mode during long-range transport events, indicating that smoke is mainly responsible for the observed increase in CCN number concentrations. Earlier studies conducted at Barbados have mostly focused on the role of dust on CCN, but our results show that aerosol hygroscopicity and CCN number concentrations during wintertime long-range transport events over the tropical North Atlantic are also affected by African smoke. Our findings highlight the importance of African smoke for atmospheric processes and cloud formation over the Caribbean.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2021

Indirect Measurements of the Composition of Ultrafine Particles in the Arctic Late-Winter

In this work, we present indirect measurements of size-resolved ultrafine particle composition conducted during the Ocean-Atmosphere-Sea Ice-Snowpack (OASIS) Campaign in Utqiagvik, Alaska, during March 2009. This study focuses on measurements of size-resolved particle hygroscopicity and volatility measured over two periods of the campaign. During a period that represents background conditions in this location, particle hygroscopic growth factors (HGF) at 90% relative humidity ranged from 1.45 to 1.51, which combined with volatility measurements suggest a mixture of ~30% ammoniated sulfates and ~70% oxidized organics. Two separate regional ultrafine particle growth events were also observed during this campaign. Event 1 coincided with elevated levels of H2SO4 and solar radiation. These particles were highly hygroscopic (HGF = 2.1 for 35 nm particles), but were almost fully volatilized at 160 °C. The air masses associated with both events originated over the Arctic Ocean. Event 1 was influenced by the upper marine boundary layer (200–350 m AGL), while Event 2 spent more time closer to the surface (50–150 m AGL) and over open ocean leads, suggesting marine influence in growth processes. Event 2 particles were slightly less hygroscopic (HGF = 1.94 for 35 nm and 1.67 for 15 nm particles), and similarly volatile. We hypothesize that particles formed during both events contained 60–70% hygroscopic salts by volume, with the balance for Event 1 being sulfates and oxidized organics for Event 2. These observations suggest that primary sea spray may be an important initiator of ultrafine particle formation events in the Arctic late-winter, but a variety of processes may be responsible for condensational growth.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2021

Underestimated marine stratocumulus cloud feedback associated with overly active deep convection in models

Cloud feedback remains the largest source of uncertainty in equilibrium climate sensitivity (ECS). Many studies have attempted to narrow uncertainties in cloud feedback and ECS by proposing observable metrics with high skill at predicting future climate, referred to as emergent constraints. These constraints are often associated with clouds, convection, and circulation, and are interrelated. However, physical explanations for these connections remain unclear. Here, we propose a new mechanism relating convection and clouds across multiple climate models. Some models show overly active deep convection on daily timescales in the subtropical low cloud regions, which contributes to weaker subsidence inversion and smaller amounts of low-level clouds. Such models predict smaller shortwave (SW) cloud feedback. Using precipitation frequency in these regions as an emergent constraint, encapsulating this mechanism, models with lower SW cloud feedback (<0.50 W m -2 °C - 1) are found to exhibit erroneously frequent convection. Our results suggest that further improvements in understanding and better modeling of cloud and convective systems are necessary for accurate climate predictions.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2022

Understanding the Microphysical Control and Spatial‐Temporal Variability of Warm Rain Probability Using CloudSat and MODIS Observations

Abstract By combining measurements from MODIS and the CloudSat radar, we develop a parameterization scheme to quantify the combined microphysical controls by liquid water path (LWP) and cloud droplet number concentration (CDNC) of the probability of precipitation (PoP) in marine low cloud over tropical oceans. We demonstrate that the spatial‐temporal variation of grid‐mean in‐cloud can be largely explained by the variation of the joint probability density function of LWP and CDNC in the phase space specified by the bivariate PoP (LWP and CDNC) function. Through a series of sensitivity tests guided by this understanding, we find that in the Southeastern Pacific and Atlantic the stratocumulus to cumulus transition of the is mainly due to the variation of CDNC while the annual cycle is mainly due to the variation of LWP. The results of this study provide a viable way to diagnose the root cause of warm rain problems in global climate models.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2026

Constraining microphysical processes of warm rain formulation using advanced spectral separations, an ensemble retrieval framework and machine learning techniques

Drizzle, a common feature of marine boundary layer clouds formed through collision coalescence, plays a key role in cloud microphysics and evolution. Yet, simultaneously retrieving cloud and drizzle properties from remote-sensing observations remains challenging because drizzle droplets often dominate radar signals, masking cloud contributions. The goal of the proposed research is to provide constraints for the process of autoconversion and accretion using ARM cloud measurements. Specifically, we provide concurrent retrievals of cloud and drizzle that allows users to derive corresponding autoconversion and accretion rates.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2024

Opportunities for Earth Observation to Inform Risk Management for Ocean Tipping Points

Abstract As climate change continues, the likelihood of passing critical thresholds or tipping points increases. Hence, there is a need to advance the science for detecting such thresholds. In this paper, we assess the needs and opportunities for Earth Observation (EO, here understood to refer to satellite observations) to inform society in responding to the risks associated with ten potential large-scale ocean tipping elements: Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation; Atlantic Subpolar Gyre; Beaufort Gyre; Arctic halocline; Kuroshio Large Meander; deoxygenation; phytoplankton; zooplankton; higher level ecosystems (including fisheries); and marine biodiversity. We review current scientific understanding and identify specific EO and related modelling needs for each of these tipping elements. We draw out some generic points that apply across several of the elements. These common points include the importance of maintaining long-term, consistent time series; the need to combine EO data consistently with in situ data types (including subsurface), for example through data assimilation; and the need to reduce or work with current mismatches in resolution (in both directions) between climate models and EO datasets. Our analysis shows that developing EO, modelling and prediction systems together, with understanding of the strengths and limitations of each, provides many promising paths towards monitoring and early warning systems for tipping, and towards the development of the next generation of climate models.

Wood, Richard A. (ORCID:0000000239609513)↗