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NASA NTRS2003

Ambient and Cryogenic Alignment Verification and Performance of the Infrared Multi-Object Spectrometer

The Infrared Multi-Object Spectrometer (IRMOS) is a facility instrument for the Kitt Peak National Observatory 4 and 2.1 meter telescopes. IRMOS is a near-IR (0.8 - 2.5 micron) spectrometer with low- to mid-resolving power (R = 300 - 3000). IRMOS produces simultaneous spectra of approximately 100 objects in its 2.8 x 2.0 arc-min field of view using a commercial Micro Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS) Digital Micro-mirror Device (DMD) from Texas Instruments. The IRMOS optical design consists of two imaging subsystems. The focal reducer images the focal plane of the telescope onto the DMD field stop, and the spectrograph images the DMD onto the detector. We describe ambient breadboard subsystem alignment and imaging performance of each stage independently, and the ambient and cryogenic imaging performance of the fully assembled instrument. Interferometric measurements of subsystem wavefront error serve to venfy alignment, and are accomplished using a commercial, modified Twyman-Green laser unequal path interferometer. Image testing provides further verification of the optomechanical alignment method and a measurement of near-angle scattered light due to mirror small-scale surface error. Image testing is performed at multiple field points. A mercury-argon pencil lamp provides spectral lines at 546.1 nm and 1550 nm, and a CCD camera and IR camera are used as detectors. We use commercial optical modeling software to predict the point-spread function and its effect on instrument slit transmission and resolution. Our breadboard test results validate this prediction. We conclude with an instrument performance prediction for first light.

Connelly, Joseph A.↗
NASA NTRS2002

Submillimeter and Far Infrared Experiment for SOFIA (SAFIRE): Progress and Prospects

SAFIRE/SOFIA is a versatile imaging Fabry-Perot spectrograph covering 100 less than lambda less than 655 microns, with spectral resolving power of approx. l0(exp 3). Selected as a "PI" instrument for the airborne Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA), SAFIRE will apply two dimensional pop-up bolometer arrays to provide background limited imaging spectrometry. We describe the instrument design, its application to a range of astro- physical investigations, and current progress and results in the innovative detector and instrument design. SAFIRE/SOFIA is on track for availability in 2006.

Shafer, R. A.↗
NASA NTRS2003

Integration, Testing and Performance of the Infrared Multi-Object Spectrometer

The Infrared Multi-Object Spectrometer (IRMOS) is a principle investigator-class instrument for the Kitt Peak National Observatory 2.1 m and Mayall 3.8 m telescopes. IRMOS is a near-IR (0.8 - 2.5 micron) spectrometer with low-to mid-resolving power (R = lambda/delta lambda = 300 - 3000). On the 3.8 m telescope, IRMOS produces simultaneous spectra of approximately 100 objects in its approximately 3 x 2 arcmin field of view using a commercial micro electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) digital micro-mirror device (DMD) from Texas Instruments. The multi-mirror array DMD operates as a real-time programmable slit mask. The all-reflective optical design consists of two imaging subsystems. The focal reducer images the focal plane of the telescope onto the DMD field stop, and the spectrograph images the DMD onto a large-format detector. The instrument operates at approximately 80 K, cooled by a single electro-mechanical cryocooler. The bench and all components are made from aluminum 6061-T651. There are three cryogenic mechanisms. We describe laboratory integration and test of IRMOS before shipment to Kitt Peak. We give an overview of the optical alignment technique and integration of optical, mechanical, electrical and cryogenic subsystems. We compare optical test results to model predictions of point spread function size and morphology, contrast, and stray light. We discuss some lessons learned and conclude with a prediction for performance on the telescope.

Ohl, Raymond G.↗
NASA NTRS2004

Alignment and Performance of the Infrared Multi-Object Spectrometer

The Infrared Multi-Object Spectrometer (IRMOS) is a principle investigator class instrument for the Kitt Peak National Observatory 4 and 2.1 meter telescopes. IRMOS is a near-IR (0.8 - 2.5 micron) spectrometer with low-to mid-resolving power (R = 300 - 3000). IRMOS produces simultaneous spectra of approximately 100 objects in its 2.8 x 2.0 arc-min field of view (4 m telescope) using a commercial Micro Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS) micro-mirror array (MMA) from Texas Instruments. The IRMOS optical design consists of two imaging subsystems. The focal reducer images the focal plane of the telescope onto the MMA field stop, and the spectrograph images the MMA onto the detector. We describe ambient breadboard subsystem alignment and imaging performance of each stage independently, and ambient imaging performance of the fully assembled instrument. Interferometric measurements of subsystem wavefront error serve as a qualitative alignment guide, and are accomplished using a commercial, modified Twyman-Green laser unequal path interferometer. Image testing provides verification of the optomechanical alignment method and a measurement of near-angle scattered light due to mirror small-scale surface error. Image testing is performed at multiple field points. A mercury-argon pencil lamp provides a spectral line at 546.1 nanometers, a blackbody source provides a line at 1550 nanometers, and a CCD camera and IR camera are used as detectors. We use commercial optical modeling software to predict the point-spread function and its effect on instrument slit transmission and resolution. Our breadboard and instrument level test results validate this prediction. We conclude with an instrument performance prediction for cryogenic operation and first light in late 2003.

Connelly, Joseph A.↗
NASA NTRS2004

A Low Mass Translation Mechanism for Planetary FTIR Spectrometry using an Ultrasonic Piezo Linear Motor

One of the key components of a Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrometer (FTIR) is the linear translation stage used to vary the optical path length between the two arms of the interferometer. This translation mechanism must produce extremely constant velocity motion across its entire range of travel to allow the instrument to attain high signal-to-noise ratio and spectral resolving power. A new spectrometer is being developed at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory under NASA s Planetary Instrument Definition and Development Program (PIDDP). The goal of this project is to build upon existing spaceborne FTIR spectrometer technology to produce a new instrument prototype that has drastically superior spectral resolution and substantially lower mass, making it feasible for planetary exploration. In order to achieve these goals, Alliance Spacesystems, Inc. (ASI) has developed a linear translation mechanism using a novel ultrasonic piezo linear motor in conjunction with a fully kinematic, fault tolerant linear rail system. The piezo motor provides extremely smooth motion, is inherently redundant, and is capable of producing unlimited travel. The kinematic rail uses spherical Vespel(R). rollers and bushings, which eliminates the need for wet lubrication, while providing a fault tolerant platform for smooth linear motion that will not bind under misalignment or structural deformation. This system can produce velocities from 10 - 100 mm/s with less than 1% velocity error over the entire 100-mm length of travel for a total mechanism mass of less than 850 grams. This system has performed over half a million strokes under vacuum without excessive wear or degradation in performance. This paper covers the design, development, and testing of this linear translation mechanism as part of the Planetary Atmosphere Occultation Spectrometer (PAOS) instrument prototype development program.

Heverly, Matthew↗
NASA NTRS2001

Relative effectiveness of kinetic analysis vs single point readings for classifying environmental samples based on community-level physiological profiles (CLPP)

The relative effectiveness of average-well-color-development-normalized single-point absorbance readings (AWCD) vs the kinetic parameters mu(m), lambda, A, and integral (AREA) of the modified Gompertz equation fit to the color development curve resulting from reduction of a redox sensitive dye from microbial respiration of 95 separate sole carbon sources in microplate wells was compared for a dilution series of rhizosphere samples from hydroponically grown wheat and potato ranging in inoculum densities of 1 x 10(4)-4 x 10(6) cells ml-1. Patterns generated with each parameter were analyzed using principal component analysis (PCA) and discriminant function analysis (DFA) to test relative resolving power. Samples of equivalent cell density (undiluted samples) were correctly classified by rhizosphere type for all parameters based on DFA analysis of the first five PC scores. Analysis of undiluted and 1:4 diluted samples resulted in misclassification of at least two of the wheat samples for all parameters except the AWCD normalized (0.50 abs. units) data, and analysis of undiluted, 1:4, and 1:16 diluted samples resulted in misclassification for all parameter types. Ordination of samples along the first principal component (PC) was correlated to inoculum density in analyses performed on all of the kinetic parameters, but no such influence was seen for AWCD-derived results. The carbon sources responsible for classification differed among the variable types with the exception of AREA and A, which were strongly correlated. These results indicate that the use of kinetic parameters for pattern analysis in CLPP may provide some additional information, but only if the influence of inoculum density is carefully considered. c2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

NASA Center KSC↗
NASA NTRS1996

The infrared spectrum of the Galactic center and the composition of interstellar dust

We have obtained 5-8 micrometers spectra of the Galactic center from the Kuiper Airborne Observatory at resolving powers of approximately 50, approximately 150, and approximately 300. These spectra show absorption features at 5.5, 5.8, 6.1, and 6.8 micrometers. Together with previously observed features in the 3 micrometers region, these features are compared with laboratory spectra of candidate materials. The 3.0 and 6.1 micrometers features are due to the OH stretching and bending variations of H2O and are well fitted by water of hydration in silicates (e.g., talc). The 3.0 micrometer band is equally well fitted by ice mixtures containing 30% H2O, but such mixtures do not provide a good fit to the observed 6.1 micrometer band. The 3.4 and 6.8 micrometers features are identified with the CH stretching and deformation modes in CH2 and CH3 groups in saturated aliphatic hydrocarbons. The 6.1 micrometer band shows a short wavelength shoulder centered on 5.8 micrometer, attributed to carbonyl (C double bond O) groups in this interstellar hydrocarbon dust component. Finally, the narrow 5.5 micrometer feature is also attributed to carbonyl groups, but in the form of metal carbonyls [e.g., Fe(CO)4]. We have derived column densities and abundances along the line of sight toward the Galactic center for the various identified dust components. This analysis shows that hydrocarbon grains contain only 0.08 of the elemental abundance of C and contribute only a relatively minor fraction (0.1) of the total dust volume. Most of the interstellar dust volume is made up of silicates (approximately 0.6). Small graphite grains, responsible for the 2200 angstroms bump, account for 0.07 of the total dust volume. The remaining one-quarter of the interstellar dust volume consists of a material(s) without strong IR absorption features. Likely candidates include large graphite grains, diamonds, or amorphous carbon grains, which all have weak or no IR active modes. Finally, various models for the origin of the hydrocarbon dust component of the interstellar dust are discussed. All of them face some problems in explaining the observations, in particular, the absence of the spectroscopic signature of hydrocrbon grains in sources associated with molecular clouds.

NASA Discipline Exobiology↗
NASA NTRS1988

The 2.5-12 micrometers spectrum of comet Halley from the IKS-VEGA experiment

The infrared instrument IKS flown on board the VEGA space probes was designed for the detection of emission bands of parent molecules, and for a measurement of the size and temperature of the thermal emitting nuclear region. The instrument had three channels with cooled detectors: an "imaging channel" designed to modulate the signal of the nucleus and two spectroscopic channels operating at 2.5-5 and 6-12 micrometers, respectively, equipped with circular variable filters of resolving power approximately 50. This paper presents and discusses the results from the spectral channels. On VEGA 1, usable spectra were obtained at distances D from the comet nucleus ranging from 250,000 to 40,000 km corresponding to fields of view 4000 and 700 km in diameter, respectively. The important internal background signal caused by the instrument itself, which could not be cooled, had to be eliminated. Since no sky chopping was performed, we obtain difference spectra between the current spectrum and a reference spectrum with little or no cometary signal taken at the beginning of the observing sequence (D approximately 200,000 km). Final discrimination between cometary signal and instrumental background is achieved using their different time evolution, since the instrumental background is proportional to the slow temperature drift of the instrument, and the cometary signal due to parent molecules or dust grains is expected to vary in first order as D-1. The 2.5-5 micrometers IKS spectra definitely show strong narrow signals at 2.7 and 4.25 micrometers, attributed to the nu 3 vibrational bands of H2O and CO2, respectively, and a broader signal in the region 3.2-3.5 micrometers, which may be attributed to CH-bearing molecules. All these signals present the expected D-1 intensity variation. Weaker emission features at 3.6 and 4.7 micrometers could correspond to the nu 1 and nu 5 bands of H2CO and the (1 - 0) band of CO, respectively. Molecular production rates are derived from the observed emissions, assuming that they are due to resonance fluorescence excited by the Sun's infrared radiation. For the strong bands of H2O and CO2, the rovibrational lines are optically thick, and radiative transfer is taken into account. We derive production rates, at the moment of the VEGA 1 flyby, of approximately 10(30) sec-1 for H2O, approximately 2.7 x 10(28) sec-1 for CO2, approximately 5 x 10(28) sec-1 for CO, and 4 x 10(28) sec-1 for H2CO, if attributions to CO and H2CO are correct. The production rate of carbon atoms in CH-bearing molecules is approximately 9 x 10(29) sec-1 assuming fluorescence of molecules in the gas phase, but could be much less if the 3.2-3.5 micrometers emission is attributed to C-H stretch in polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons or small organic grains. In addition, marginal features are present at 4.85 and 4.45 micrometers, tentatively attributed to OCS and molecules with the CN group, respectively. Broad absorption at 2.8-3.0 micrometers, as well as a narrow emission at 3.15 micrometers, which follow well the D-1 intensity variation, might be due to water ice. Emission at 2.8 micrometers is also possibly present, and might be due to OH created in vibrationally excited states after water photodissociation. The 6-12 micrometers spectrum does not show any molecular emission, nor emission in the 7.5-micrometers region. The spectrum is dominated by silicate emission showing a double structure with maxima at 9.0 and 11.2 micrometers, which suggests the presence of olivine.

NASA Discipline Number 52-10↗
NASA NTRS1999

Distribution of Candida albicans genotypes among family members

Thirty-three families (71 subjects) were screened for the presence of Candida albicans in mouthwash or stool specimens; 12 families (28 subjects) were culture-positive for this yeast. An enrichment procedure provided a twofold increase in the recovery of C. albicans from mouthwash specimens. Nine of the twelve culture-positive families had two positive members each, two families had three positive members each, and one family had four positive members. Genetic profiles were obtained by three methods: pulsed-field gel electrophoresis; restriction endonuclease analysis, and random amplification of polymorphic DNA analysis. DNA fingerprinting of C. albicans isolated from one body site three consecutive times revealed that each of the 12 families carried a distinct genotype. No two families shared the same strain, and two or more members of a family commonly shared the same strain. Intrafamily genotypic identity (i.e., each member within the family harbored the same strain) was demonstrated in six families. Genotypes of isolates from husband and wife differed from one another in five families. All three methods were satisfactory in determining genotypes; however, we concluded that restriction endonuclease analysis provided adequate resolving power.

NASA Center JSC↗
NASA NTRS2004

Eta Carinae and the 2003.5 Minimum: Ultraviolet Changes of the Central Source and the Very Nearby Ejecta

We utilized the high spatial and high spectral resolution of the HST/STIS MAMA echelle modes in the ultraviolet (0.025 sec spatial resolution and 30,000 to 120,000 spectral resolving power) to view changes in and around Eta Carinae before and after the X-Ray drop which occurred on June 29, 2003. Major changes in the spectra of the Central Source and nearby nebulosities occurred between June 22 and July 5. Visibility of the Central Source dropped, especially between 1175 and 1350 A, but not uniformly through the UV. This fading is likely due to multiple line absorptions both in the source and in the intervening ejecta. Nebular emission of Si III and Fe III, located 0.09 sec to the west, disappeared. By July 29, a bright feature extending up to 0.07 sec east of the Central Source became prominent in broad emission lines near 2500 A, but was not noticeable longward of 2900 A. ACS/HRC imagery and STIS CCD spectra taken concurrently are being examined for larger scale changes. Numerous narrow velocity components between -146 and -585 km/s were identified in spectra before the minimum. New components appeared primarily in Fe II absorption lines with velocities between -170 and -380 km/s. While the lines of the -513 km/s component did not change, most lines of the -146 km/s component changed considerably. Lines originating from high energy levels diminished or disappeared, while lines originating from lower energy levels strengthened. Strong absorption lines of Ti II, not present before the X-Ray drop, appeared within seven days, but disappeared by July 29. Further analysis of these unprecedented data will provide significant new information about the structure of Eta Carinae and its periodic variations.

Gull, T. R.↗
NASA NTRS2004

Ultraviolet Changes of the Central Source and the Very Nearby Ejecta

We utilized the high spatial and high spectral resolution of the HST/STIS MAMA echelle modes in the ultraviolet (0.025 inch spatial resolution and 30,000 to 120,000 spectral resolving power) to view changes in and around Eta Carinae before and after the X-Ray drop which occurred on June 29, 2003 (M. Corcoran, IAUC 8160). Major changes in the spectra of the Central Source and nearby nebulosities occurred between June 22 and July 5. Visibility of the Central Source dropped, especially between 1175 and 1350 Angstroms, but not uniformly throughout the ultraviolet. This fading is likely due to multiple line absorptions both in the source and in the intervening ejecta. Nebular emission of Si III] and Fe III, located 0.09 sec. to the west, disappeared. By July 29, a bright feature extending up to 0.071 sec. east of the Central Source became prominent in broad emission lines near 2500 Angstroms, but was not noticeable longward of 2900 Angstroms. ACS/HRC imagery and STIS CCD spectra taken concurrently are being examined for larger scale changes. Numerous narrow velocity components between -146 and -585 kilometers per second were identified in spectra before the minimum. New components appeared primarily in Fe II absorption lines with velocities between -170 and -380 kilometers per second. While the lines of the -513 kilometers per second component did not change, most lines of the -146 kilometers per second component changed considerably. Lines originating from high energy levels diminished or disappeared, while lines originating from lower energy levels strengthened. Strong absorption lines of Ti II, not present before the X-Ray drop, appeared within seven days, but disappeared by July 29. Further analysis of these unprecedented data will provide significant new information about the structure of Eta Carinae and its periodic variations.

Gull, Theodore R.↗
NASA NTRS2004

The In-Flight Calibration Program for the XRS on Astro-E2

The X-Ray Spectrometer (XRS) will be launched in February 2005 as part of the Astro-E2 mission. It will provide unprecedented throughput and resolving powers particularly at high energies. In this presentation we will describe the in-flight calibration program. The energy scale of the XRS is a complex, non-linear function of the noise and power conditions on the array. It will be calibrated empirically using the bright point sources, Capella and GX301-2. Ground calibration of the line spread function show it to be almost perfectly Gaussian. The in-flight calibration is designed to verify this using the energy scale targets. The effective area curve of the XRS contains discreet edge structure from the mirrors, the optical blocking filters, and the microcalorimeter HgTe absorbers. The effective area Calibration program will simultaneously measure these absorption edges and the global effective area properties using the relatively featureless sources 3C273 and Mrk421. Additional monitoring of any ice build-up on the filters will be conducted using observations of the supernova remnants N132D and E0102.

Cottam, J.↗
NASA NTRS1988

Nonselective enrichment for yeast adenine mutants by flow cytometry

The expression of certain adenine biosynthetic mutations in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae results in a red colony color. This phenomenon has historically provided an ideal genetic marker for the study of mutation, recombination, and aneuploidy in lower eukaryotes by classical genetic analysis. In this paper, it is reported that cells carrying ade1 and/or ade2 mutations exhibit primary fluorescence. Based on this observation, the nonselective enrichment of yeast cultures for viable adenine mutants by using the fluorescence-activated cell sorter has been achieved. The advantages of this approach over conventional genetic analysis of mutation, recombination, and mitotic chromosomal stability include speed and accuracy in acquiring data for large numbers of clones. By using appropriate strains, the cell sorter has been used for the isolation of both forward mutations and chromosomal loss events in S. cerevisiae. The resolving power of this system and its noninvasiveness can easily be extended to more complex organisms, including mammalian cells, in which analogous metabolic mutants are available.

Non-NASA Center↗
NASA NTRS2004

Determining Cloud Parameters with the Curve-Of-Growth: Application Eta Car

We have investigated the NUV part of the Eta Car spectrum, using data with high spatial and high spectral resolving power obtained with the HST/STIS under the Treasury Program. The NUV spectrum of Eta Car Shows a great contribution of absorption features from neutral and singly ionized elements along the line-of-sight. A large number of velocity systems have been observed. The two most prominent, with Doppler shifts corresponding to -146 and -513 km/s respectively, are shown to be useful for investigations of the gaseous environments responsible for the absorption. The -146 and the -513 km/s velocity systems display different characteristics regarding the ionization state and spectral line width, which suggest that they originate at different distances from the central object. We have investigated the absorption structures before the spectroscopic minimum, occurring during the summer of 2003, with a standard curve-of-growth. We have independently derived the column density and the b-value for the Fe II (-146 km/s) and Ti II (-513 km/s) velocity systems. The excitation temperature has been determined for the -146 km/s velocity system using the photo-ionization code \textsc(cloudy). The -146 km/s velocity structure shows noticeable variation over the spectroscopic minimum. The sudden appearance and disappearance of Ti II and V II are astonishing. We have made an attempt to analyze these variations with the curve-of-growth method and will present preliminary results.

Vieira, G. L.↗
NASA NTRS2005

Submillimeter Spectroscopy with SOFIA

Four submillimeter spectrometers are being developed for use on SOFIA, the Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy. They will be nearly diffraction limited by SOFIA'S 2.5 m telescope, giving for example images of 8.5 arc seconds FWHM at 100 microns. The instruments are FlFI LS, an integral-field imaging grating spectrometer (MPE) covering 40-210 microns with ~150 km/s resolution; SAFIRE an imaging Fabry-Perot spectrometer covering 100-'650 microns with resolution ~200 km/s, and two heterodyne receivers with resolving powers up to ~0.03 km/s: GREAT covering bands from 158-187 um, 110-125, and 62-65 microns, and CASIMIR, operating from 150-264 and 508-588 microns. These instruments will enable a variety of studies including topics relating to the origins of stars, planets, and biogenic materials in the interstallar medium of our own and other galaxies. Opportunities for observing with these and the other SOFIA instruments will be available to general investigators. SOFIA is a joint project of NASA in the U.S. and DLR in Germany.

Erickson, E.↗
NASA NTRS2003

A Broadband Superconducting Detector Suitable for Use in Large Arrays

Cryogenic detectors are extremely sensitive and have a wide variety of applications (particularly in astronomy), but are difficult to integrate into large arrays like a modern CCD (charge-coupled device) camera. As current detectors of the cosmic microwave background (CMB) already have sensitivities comparable to the noise arising from the random arrival of CMB photons, the further gains in sensitivity needed to probe the very early Universe will have to arise from large arrays. A similar situation is encountered at other wavelengths. Single-pixel X-ray detectors now have a resolving power of (Delta)E < 5 eV for single 6-keV photons, and future X-ray astronomy missions anticipate the need for 1,000-pixel arrays. Here we report the demonstration of a superconducting detector that is easily fabricated and can readily be incorporated into such an array. Its sensitivity is already within an order of magnitude of that needed for CMB observations, and its energy resolution is similarly close to the targets required for future X-ray astronomy missions.

Day, Peter K.↗
NASA NTRS2006

The Constellation-X Reflection Grating Spectrometer

The Reflection Grating Spectrometer on the Constellation-X mission will provide high sensitivity, high-resolution spectra in the soft x-ray band. The RGS performance requirements are specified as a resolving power of greater than 300 and an effective area of greater than 1000 sq cm across most of the 0.25 to 2.0 keV band. These requirements are driven by the science goals of the mission. We will describe the performance requirements and goals, the reference design of the spectrometer, and examples of science cases where we expect data from the RGS to significantly advance our current understanding of the universe.

Allen, Jean C.↗
NASA NTRS2006

On-orbit Performance Of The Suzaku/XRS

The Suzaku high-resolution X-Ray Spectrometer (XRS) is the first orbiting x-ray microcalorimeter. This instrument, which maintains the sensor at less than 0.1K and utilizes liquid He and solid Ne cryogens, is capable of providing very high, non-dispersive x-ray spectroscopy. The microcalorimeter approach enables increasing spectral resolving power toward increasing energy. This fundamental characteristic makes it the instrument of choice for a variety of spectral diagnostics that can be uniquely obtained from studies of Fe K-line features common in such objects as cluster of galaxies and active galaxies, to name only two important classes out of many. The array aspect allows for imaging spectroscopy of extended sources without spectral degradation. Unfortunately, a design flaw in the XRS dewar/spacecraft interface caused the premature loss of liquid helium and rendered the instrument miusable. Nonetheless, during the three weeks following the launch of Suzaku, the instrument performed extremely well and demonstrated that the basic microcalorimeter concept is sound for space applications. An energy resolution of 7 eV FWHM at 6keV was obtained in orbit as measured using internal calibration sources. We will describe the XRS design and operation, explain what happened, and then present some lessons learned for future space missions utilizing this powerful technology.

Kelley, Richard↗