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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 289 records · Page 16
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2015

Dose Response for Radiation Cataractogenesis: A Meta-Regression of Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation Regimens

Purpose/Objective(s): To perform a meta-regression on published data and to model the 5-year probability of cataract development after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) with and without total body irradiation (TBI). Methods and Materials: Eligible studies reporting cataract incidence after HSCT with TBI were identified by a PubMed search. Seventeen publications provided complete information on radiation dose schedule, fractionation, dose rate, and actuarial cataract incidence. Chemotherapy-only regimens were included as zero radiation dose regimens. Multivariate meta-regression with a weighted generalized linear model was used to model the 5-year cataract incidence and contributory factors. Results: Data from 1386 patients in 21 series were included for analysis. TBI was administered to a total dose of 0 to 15.75 Gy with single or fractionated schedules with a dose rate of 0.04 to 0.16 Gy/min. Factors significantly associated with 5-year cataract incidence were dose, dose times dose per fraction (D•dpf), pediatric versus adult status, and the absence of an ophthalmologist as an author. Dose rate, graft versus host disease, steroid use, hyperfractionation, and number of fractions were not significant. Five-fold internal cross-validation showed a model validity of 83% ± 8%. Regression diagnostics showed no evidence of lack-of-fit and no patterns in the studentized residuals. The α/β ratio from the linear quadratic model, estimated as the ratio of the coefficients for dose and D•dpf, was 0.76 Gy (95% confidence interval [CI], 0.05-1.55). The odds ratio for pediatric patients was 2.8 (95% CI, 1.7-4.6) relative to adults. Conclusions: Dose, D•dpf, pediatric status, and regimented follow-up care by an ophthalmologist were predictive of 5-year cataract incidence after HSCT. The low α/β ratio indicates the importance of fractionation in reducing cataracts. Dose rate effects have been observed in single institution studies but not in the combined data analyzed here. Although data were limited to articles with 5-year actuarial estimates, the development of radiation-induced cataracts extends beyond this time.

62 RADIOLOGY AND NUCLEAR MEDICINE↗
DOE OSTI2023

Mastering HPC Runtime Prediction: From Observing Patterns to a Methodological Approach: Preprint

The continual expansion of high-performance computing (HPC) brings with it an increasing need for efficiency. Heavy investment in energy, hardware, and software infrastructure to support peta- and exascale computing requires the optimization of existing systems and, wherever possible, the discernment and adoption of best-practices towards these goals. Such is the case for runtime prediction. When a job is submitted to an HPC system, an estimate of its runtime is provided by the user in the form of "requested wallclock''. Error in this user-provided estimate can lead to jobs being prematurely killed by the scheduler, increased wait time on the queue, and decreased system utilization. More than fifteen years of research has been directed at mitigating these effects by using data-driven runtime predictions. Codified here is a set of commonalities and insights emerging from this body of work, which we present as recommendations and best practices. These practices are combined into a methodological approach described and evaluated on an 11-million-job dataset from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory's petascale HPC system, Eagle. This dataset and the accompanying codebase have been released to the public domain for the benefit of the wider HPC research community.

high performance computing↗
DOE OSTI2024

Imaging shapes of atomic nuclei in high-energy nuclear collisions

Atomic nuclei are self-organized, many-body quantum systems bound by strong nuclear forces within femtometre-scale space. These complex systems manifest a variety of shapes, traditionally explored using non-invasive spectroscopic techniques at low energies. However, at these energies, their instantaneous shapes are obscured by long-timescale quantum fluctuations, making direct observation challenging. Here we introduce the collective-flow-assisted nuclear shape-imaging method, which images the nuclear global shape by colliding them at ultrarelativistic speeds and analysing the collective response of outgoing debris. This technique captures a collision-specific snapshot of the spatial matter distribution within the nuclei, which, through the hydrodynamic expansion, imprints patterns on the particle momentum distribution observed in detectors. We benchmark this method in collisions of ground-state uranium-238 nuclei, known for their elongated, axial-symmetric shape. Our findings show a large deformation with a slight deviation from axial symmetry in the nuclear ground state, aligning broadly with previous low-energy experiments. This approach offers a new method for imaging nuclear shapes, enhances our understanding of the initial conditions in high-energy collisions and addresses the important issue of nuclear structure evolution across energy scales.

73 NUCLEAR PHYSICS AND RADIATION PHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2015

The nutrition transition in Colombia over a decade: a novel household classification system of anthropometric measures

Background: Overweight and underweight increase the risk of metabolic impairments and chronic disease. Interventions at the household level require the diagnosis of nutritional status among family members. The aim of this study was to describe the prevalence and patterns of various anthropometric typologies over a decade in Colombia using a novel approach that considers all children in the household as well as the mother. This approach also allows identifying a dual burden of malnutrition within a household, where one child may be overweight and another one undernourished. Methods: This study used data from the Demographic and Health Survey and the Colombian National Nutrition Survey [2000 n = 2,876, 2005 n = 8,598, and 2010 n = 11,349]. Four mutually exclusive household (HH) anthropometric typologies - normal, undernourished, overweight/obese, and dual burden - were created. Anthropometric information of height-for-age Z-scores (HAZ) and body-mass-index-forage Z-scores (BMIz) in children under the age of 5 y, and on body mass index (BMI) in mothers, 18–49 y was used. Results: Prevalence of overweight/obese HHs increased between 2000 (38.2%) and 2010 (43.1%) (p < 0.05), while undernourished and dual burden HHs significantly decreased between 2005 (13.7% and 10.6%, respectively) and 2010 (3.5% and 5.1%, respectively) (p < 0.05). A greater increase of overweight/obesity was observed for the lowest quintile of wealth index (WI), with an increase of almost 10% between 2000 and 2010, compared to 2% and 4% for the fourth and highest WI, respectively. Although in 2010 there is still a higher prevalence of overweight/obesity HHs in urban areas (43.7%), the prevalence of overweight/obesity HHs in rural areas increased sharply between 2000 (34.3%) and 2010 (41.6%) (p < 0.05). Conclusion: The observed prevalence of dual burden households was not different from the expected prevalence. Results from this study indicate that although overweight/obesity continues to be more prevalent among high-income Colombian households, it is growing at a faster pace among the most economically disadvantaged.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2015

STRIPPED ELLIPTICAL GALAXIES AS PROBES OF ICM PHYSICS. I. TAILS, WAKES, AND FLOW PATTERNS IN AND AROUND STRIPPED ELLIPTICALS

Elliptical cluster galaxies are progressively stripped of their atmospheres due to their motion through the intracluster medium (ICM). Deep X-ray observations reveal the fine-structure of the galaxy’s remnant atmosphere and its gas tail and wake. This fine-structure depends on dynamic conditions (galaxy potential, initial gas contents, orbit through the host cluster), orbital stage (early infall, pre-/post-pericenter passage), and ICM plasma properties (thermal conductivity, viscosity, magnetic field structure). We aim to disentangle dynamic and plasma effects in order to use stripped ellipticals as probes of ICM plasma properties. This first paper of a series investigates the hydrodynamics of progressive gas stripping by means of inviscid hydrodynamical simulations. We distinguish a long-lasting initial relaxation phase and a quasi-steady stripping phase. During quasi-steady stripping, the ICM flow around the remnant atmosphere resembles the flow around solid bodies, including a “deadwater” region in the near wake. Gas is stripped from the remnant atmosphere predominantly at its sides via Kelvin–Helmholtz instabilities. The downstream atmosphere is largely shielded from the ICM wind and thus shaped into a tail. Observationally, both this “remnant tail” and the stripped gas in the wake can appear as a “tail”, but only in the wake can galactic gas mix with the ambient ICM. While the qualitative results are generic, the simulations presented here are tailored to the Virgo elliptical galaxy M89 (NGC 4552) for the most direct comparison to observations. Papers II and III of this series describe the effect of viscosity and compare to Chandra and XMM-Newton observations, respectively.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2017

A Ras GTPase associated protein is involved in the phototropic and circadian photobiology responses in fungi

Light is an environmental signal perceived by most eukaryotic organisms and that can have major impacts on their growth and development. The MadC protein in the fungus Phycomyces blakesleeanus (Mucoromycotina) has been postulated to form part of the photosensory input for phototropism of the fruiting body sporangiophores, but the madC gene has remained unidentified since the 1960s when madC mutants were first isolated. In this study the madC gene was identified by positional cloning. All madC mutant strains contain loss-of-function point mutations within a gene predicted to encode a GTPase activating protein (GAP) for Ras. The madC gene complements the Saccharomyces cerevisiae Ras-GAP ira1 mutant and the encoded MadC protein interacts with P. blakesleeanus Ras homologs in yeast two-hybrid assays, indicating that MadC is a regulator of Ras signaling. Deletion of the homolog in the filamentous ascomycete Neurospora crassa affects the circadian clock output, yielding a pattern of asexual conidiation similar to a ras-1 mutant that is used in circadian studies in N. crassa. Thus, MadC is unlikely to be a photosensor, yet is a fundamental link in the photo responses from blue light perceived by the conserved White Collar complex with Ras signaling in two distantly-related filamentous fungal species.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2022

Species- and element-specific patterns of metal flux from contaminated wetlands versus metals shed with exuviae in emerging dragonflies

Dragonfly adults and their aquatic immature stages are important parts of food webs and provide a link between aquatic and terrestrial components. During emergence, contaminants can be exported into terrestrial food webs as immature adults fly away or be shed with their exuviae and remain in the wetland. Our previous work established metals accumulating in dragonfly nymphs throughout a contaminated constructed wetland designed to regulate pH and sequester trace metals from an industrial effluent line. In this paper we evaluated the concentration and mass of metals leaving the wetland in flying emergents versus remaining in the wetland with the shed exuviae in 10 species of dragonflies belonging to 8 genera. Nine elements (Cu, Zn, Cd, Mn, V, Mg, Fe, Al, Pb) were evaluated that include essential and nonessential elements as well as trace and major metals. Metal concentrations in the emergent body and exuviae can differ by orders of magnitude. Aluminum, Fe, Mn, and Pb were largely shed in the exuviae. Vanadium and Cd were more variable among species but also tended to be shed with the exuviae. In contrast, Cu, Zn, and Mg showed a higher tendency to leave the wetland with an emerging dragonfly. Metals shed in dragonfly exuviae can moderate the transport of metals from contaminated wetlands. Taxonomic- and metal-specific variability in daily metal flux from the wetland depended upon concentration accumulated, individual body mass, and number of individuals emerging, with each factor's relative importance often differing among species. This illustrates the importance of evaluating the mass of metals in an individual and not only concentrations. Furthermore, differences in numbers of each species emerging will magnify differences in individual metal flux when calculating community metal flux. A better understanding of the variability of metal accumulation in nymphs/larvae and metal shedding during metamorphosis among both metals and species is needed.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2020

Graphene K‐Tape Meshes for Densely Distributed Human Motion Monitoring

Abstract Wearable sensors that measure parameters associated with physical activity and bodily motions have been regarded as an indispensable tool for assessing personal wellness. Recent advances in nanocomposite strain sensors have been successfully used for monitoring skin strains and other strain‐derived physiological parameters. This study complements the existing body of work and presents a flexible, self‐adhering, fabric‐based wearable sensor for measuring skin strains and human motions. Graphene nanosheet thin films are directly spray‐coated onto kinesiology tape (K‐Tape) to obtain a self‐adhering strain sensor of high sensitivity and linearity. Their stable sensing performance and high repeatability are verified, while human subject tests confirm that they adequately capture muscle engagement during functional movements. In addition, densely distributed strain monitoring can be achieved using an electrical impedance tomography measurement approach and algorithm. Spatial strain sensing is successfully demonstrated using a single strip of piezoresistive K‐Tape, as well as when a K‐Tape network or mesh pattern is formed. The results show promise for using graphene K‐Tape meshes to measure how specific major muscle groups engage during different physical activities.

Lin, Yun‐An↗
DOE OSTI2025

Self-generated electrokinetic flows from active-charged boundary patterns

We develop a hydrodynamic description of self-generated electrolyte flow in capillaries whose bounding walls feature nonuniform distributions of charge nonuniform active ionic fluxes. The hydrodynamic velocity arising in such a system has components that are forbidden by symmetry in the absence of charge and fluxes. However, when these two boundary mechanisms are simultaneously present, they can lead to a symmetry broken state where steady flows with both unidirectional and circulatory components emerge. We show that these flow states arise when modulated boundary patterns of charge and fluxes are offset by a flux-charge phase difference, which is associated with the separation between sites of their peak densities on the wall. Mismatch in diffusivity of cationic and anionic species can modify the flow states and becomes an enhancing factor when fluxes of both ion species are being produced together at the same site. We demonstrate that this mechanism can be realized with a microfluidic generator that is powered by enzyme-coated patches that catalyze reactants in the solution to produce fluxes of ions. The local ionic elevation or depletion, which disrupts a nonuniform double layer, promotes self-induced gradients yielding persistent body forces to generate bulk fluid motion. Our work quantifies a boundary-driven mechanism behind self-sustained electrolyte flow in confined environments that exists without any external bulk-imposed fields or gradients. It provides a theoretical framework for understanding the combined effect of active and charged boundaries that are relevant in biological or soft matter systems, and can be utilized in electrofluidic and iontronic applications.

active matter↗
DOE OSTI2018

The Origin of the Moon Within a Terrestrial Synestia

The giant impact hypothesis remains the leading theory for lunar origin. However, current models struggle to explain the Moon’s composition and isotopic similarity with Earth. Here we present a new lunar origin model. High-energy, high-angular-momentum giant impacts can create a post-impact structure that exceeds the corotation limit, which defines the hottest thermal state and angular momentum possible for a corotating body. In a typical super-corotation-limit body, traditional definitions of mantle, atmosphere, and disk are not appropriate, and the body forms a new type of planetary structure, named a synestia. Using simulations of cooling synestias combined with dynamic, thermodynamic, and geochemical calculations, we show that satellite formation from a synestia can produce the main features of our Moon. We find that cooling drives mixing of the structure, and condensation generates moonlets that orbit within the synestia, surrounded by tens of bars of bulk silicate Earth vapor. The moonlets and growing moon are heated by the vapor until the first major element (Si) begins to vaporize and buffer the temperature. Moonlets equilibrate with bulk silicate Earth vapor at the temperature of silicate vaporization and the pressure of the structure, establishing the lunar isotopic composition and pattern of moderately volatile elements. Eventually, the cooling synestia recedes within the lunar orbit, terminating the main stage of lunar accretion. Our model shifts the paradigm for lunar origin from specifying a certain impact scenario to achieving a Moon-forming synestia. Giant impacts that produce potential Moon-forming synestias were common at the end of terrestrial planet formation.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2017

Socially optimal replacement of conventional with electric vehicles for the US household fleet

In this study, a framework is proposed for minimizing the societal cost of replacing gas-powered household passenger cars with battery electric ones (BEVs). The societal cost consists of operational costs of heterogeneous driving patterns' cars, the government investments for charging deployment, and monetized environmental externalities. The optimization framework determines the timeframe needed for conventional vehicles to be replaced with BEVs. It also determines the BEVs driving range during the planning timeframe, as well as the density of public chargers deployed on a linear transportation network over time. We leverage datasets that represent U.S. household driving patterns, as well as the automobile and the energy markets, to apply the model. Results indicate that it takes 8 years for 80% of our conventional vehicle sample to be replaced with electric vehicles, under the base case scenario. The socially optimal all-electric driving range is 204 miles, with chargers placed every 172 miles on a linear corridor. All of the public chargers should be deployed at the beginning of the planning horizon to achieve greater savings over the years. Sensitivity analysis reveals that the timeframe for the socially optimal conversion of 80% of the sample varies from 6 to 12 years. The optimal decision variables are sensitive to battery pack and vehicle body cost, gasoline cost, the discount rate, and conventional vehicles' fuel economy. In conclusion, faster conventional vehicle replacement is achieved when the gasoline cost increases, electricity cost decreases, and battery packs become cheaper over the years.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2015

The Danish contribution to the European DEMOCOPHES project: A description of cadmium, cotinine and mercury levels in Danish mother-child pairs and the perspectives of supplementary sampling and measurements

Human biomonitoring (HBM) is an important tool, increasingly used for measuring true levels of the body burdens of environmental chemicals in the general population. In Europe, a harmonized HBM program was needed to open the possibility to compare levels across borders. To explore the prospect of a harmonized European HBM project, DEMOCOPHES (DEMOnstration of a study to COordinate and Perform Human biomonitoring on a European Scale) was completed in 17 European countries. The basic measurements performed in all implemented countries of DEMOCOPHES included cadmium, cotinine and phthalate metabolites in urine and mercury in hair. In the Danish participants, significant correlations between mothers and children for mercury in hair and cotinine in urine were found. Mercury in hair was further significantly associated with intake of fish and area of residence. Cadmium was positively associated with BMI in mothers and an association between cadmium and cotinine was also found. As expected high cotinine levels were found in smoking mothers. For both mercury and cadmium significantly higher concentrations were found in the mothers compared to their children. In Denmark, the DEMOCOPHES project was co-financed by the Danish ministries of health, environment and food safety. The co-financing ministries agreed to finance a number of supplementary measurements of substances of current toxicological, public and regulatory interest. This also included blood sampling from the participants. The collected urine and blood samples were analyzed for a range of other persistent and non-persistent environmental chemicals as well as two biomarkers of effect. The variety of supplementary measurements gives the researchers further information on the exposure status of the participants and creates a basis for valuable knowledge on the pattern of exposure to various chemicals. - Highlights: • Levels of cadmium, mercury and cotinine in the Danish subpopulation are comparable to levels in the total DEMOCOPHES population with mercury in hair above the European median. • Supplementary sample collection and measurements in Denmark gave valuable exposure information on a variety of other chemicals of current toxicological, public and regulatory interest, such as persistent organic pollutants. • It is highly valuable to obtain as much exposure information as possible once you have established the study cohort.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2024

Streamlining heterologous expression of top carbonic anhydrases in Escherichia coli : bioinformatic and experimental approaches

Carbonic anhydrase (CA) enzymes facilitate the reversible hydration of CO 2 to bicarbonate ions and protons. Identifying efficient and robust CAs and expressing them in model host cells, such as Escherichia coli, enables more efficient engineering of these enzymes for industrial CO 2 capture. However, expression of CAs in E. coli is challenging due to the possible formation of insoluble protein aggregates, or inclusion bodies. This makes the production of soluble and active CA protein a prerequisite for downstream applications. In this study, we streamlined the process of CA expression by selecting seven top CA candidates and used two bioinformatic tools to predict their solubility for expression in E. coli. The prediction results place these enzymes in two categories: low and high solubility. Our expression of high solubility score CAs (namely CA5-SspCA, CA6-SazCAtrunc, CA7-PabCA and CA8-PhoCA) led to significantly higher protein yields (5 to 75 mg purified protein per liter) in flask cultures, indicating a strong correlation between the solubility prediction score and protein expression yields. Furthermore, phylogenetic tree analysis demonstrated CA class-specific clustering patterns for protein solubility and production yields. Unexpectedly, we also found that the unique N-terminal, 11-amino acid segment found after the signal sequence (not present in its homologs), was essential for CA6-SazCA activity. Overall, this work demonstrated that protein solubility prediction, phylogenetic tree analysis, and experimental validation are potent tools for identifying top CA candidates and then producing soluble, active forms of these enzymes in E. coli. The comprehensive approaches we report here should be extendable to the expression of other heterogeneous proteins in E. coli.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2024

Sentinel protist taxa of the McMurdo Dry Valley lakes, Antarctica: a review

High-latitude meromictic lakes such as those in the Antarctic McMurdo Dry Valleys (MDV) harbor aquatic ecosystems dominated by the microbial loop. Within this habitat, which is limited year-round by light and nutrients, protists, or single celled eukaryotes, play outsized roles in the food web as the dominant primary producers and the apex predators. Thus, the MDV lake ecosystem represents an ideal system to study the role of sentinel protist taxa in carbon and nutrient cycling. The perennially ice-covered lakes are part of the McMurdo Long Term Ecological Research (McM LTER; mcmlter.org) established in 1993. In this review we will highlight the diversity and trophic roles of the MDV lake protist community and compare environmental factors driving spatiotemporal patterns in key protist taxa in two lakes within the McM LTER, Lakes Bonney and Fryxell. We will then discuss lessons learned from manipulated experiments on the impact of current and future climate-driven environmental change on sensitive protist taxa. Last, we will integrate knowledge gained from 25 years of lab-controlled experiments on key photosynthetic protists to extend our understanding of the function of these extremophiles within the MDV aquatic food webs. Our research group has studied the distribution and function of the MDV microbial community for nearly two decades, training the next generation of scientists to tackle future problems of these globally significant microbes. This review article will also highlight early career scientists who have contributed to this body of work and represent the future of scientific understanding in the Anthropocene.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2015

Stereotactic Body Radiation Therapy for Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer Tumors Greater Than 5 cm: Safety and Efficacy

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to determine outcomes of patients with node-negative medically inoperable non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) whose primary tumors exceeded 5 cm and were treated with stereotactic body radiation therapy (SBRT). Methods and Materials: We surveyed our institutional prospective lung SBRT registry to identify treated patients with tumors >5 cm. Treatment outcomes for local control (LC), locoregional control (LRC), disease-free survival (DFS), and overall survival (OS) were assessed by Kaplan-Meier estimates. Toxicities were graded according to Common Terminology Criteria for Adverse Events version 4. Mean pretreatment pulmonary function test values were compared to mean posttreatment values. Results: From December 2003 to July 2014, 40 patients met study criteria. Median follow-up was 10.8 months (range: 0.4-70.3 months). Median age was 76 years (range: 56-90 years), median body mass index was 24.3 (range: 17.7-37.2), median Karnofsky performance score was 80 (range: 60-90), and median Charlson comorbidity index score was 2 (range: 0-5). Median forced expiratory volume in 1 second (FEV1) was 1.41 L (range: 0.47-3.67 L), and median diffusion capacity (DLCO) was 47% of predicted (range: 29%-80%). All patients were staged by fluorodeoxyglucose-positron emission tomography/computed tomography staging, and 47.5% underwent mediastinal staging by endobronchial ultrasonography. Median tumor size was 5.6 cm (range: 5.1-10 cm), median SBRT dose was 50 Gy (range: 30-60 Gy) in 5 fractions (range: 3-10 fractions). Eighteen-month LC, LRC, DFS, and OS rates were 91.2%, 64.4%, 34.6%, and 59.7%, respectively. Distant failure was the predominant pattern of failure (32.5%). Three patients (7.5%) experienced grade 3 or higher toxicity. Mean posttreatment FEV1 was not significantly reduced (P=.51), but a statistically significant absolute 6.5% (P=.03) reduction in DLCO was observed. Conclusions: Lung SBRT for medically inoperable node-negative NSCLC with primary tumors larger than 5 cm is safe and provides excellent local control with limited toxicity. The predominant pattern of failure in this population was distant failure.

62 RADIOLOGY AND NUCLEAR MEDICINE↗
DOE OSTI2025

Packing fraction control during additive manufacturing of powder green bodies

The demand for high performance ceramic and metal components with complex geometry necessitates developments in powder handling and green body shaping. Here, in this study, vibrational powder deposition is adapted to three-dimensional printing with the ability to modulate packing fraction during printing. Boron carbide powder with sub-micron primary particle size is printed over a packing fraction range of 25.0 % to 46.5 % (below the poured density to above the tapped density). Solid metal powders are printed at 67.5 %, which enables novel freestanding, vertical-walled features without binder. These capabilities introduce opportunities for more complex geometries in high-performance materials, e.g. large-scale uniaxial hot-pressing of ceramic ballistic armor components with graded thickness and three-dimensional curved or stepped features (by compensating for displacement differences during compaction). This technology also enables multi-material patterning of additive manufacturing powder beds with reduced feedstock quantity requirements and wastage.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗