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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 289 records · Page 16
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Computational Tools to Design Molten Salt Electrolytes for High-Temperature Environments

Current Li-ion batteries are designed for a small operating window of 5 °C to 55 °C. Modifications to the electrolyte for operation in Mars atmosphere extended this range on the lower bound to ~ -40 °C. These operating-temperature ranges are far from those presented in high-temperature environments, such as the Venus surface, where temperatures are around 450 °C. Protecting the state-of-the-art Li-ion batteries require insulations that decreases the volumetric capacity and limiting the operational time-window. These unique challenges require a paradigm shift in materials used for designing high-temperature batteries. Molten salt electrolyte-based batteries offer a plausible route to designing high-temperature batteries. ZEBRA batteries are known to be one of the safest energy storage devices operating at 270-350 °C. Nitrate based eutectics, operating at 150 °C have also been used in Li-O2 batteries. In this study, we will examine molten-salt electrolyte transport and electrochemical properties using first-principles computations and benchmark against experiments. Further, we will present thermodynamics-based models for designing and predicting melting point of molten salt mixtures. Based on these computational tools, new molten salt mixtures designed with desired operating temperatures and electrochemical windows will be presented. Implications of these new eutectics in the context of high-temperature environment exploration will also be discussed.

Balachandran Radhakrishnan↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Understanding Thermal Transport in Polymer –Silver Nanowire Composites

Understanding thermal transport across filler-polymer interfaces and filler-filler contacts within polymer composites is of great importance for better thermal design of the composites that are widely used in high-performance heat exchangers, energy storage devices, and flexible electronics. Over the past several decades, considerable progress has been made in improving the thermal conductivity of polymer composites, but several key questions concerning the influence of interfacial thermal resistance, or Kapitza resistance, still remain. Firstly, the thermal properties of these composites are highly dependent on thermal transport through the filler network and its contacts. For metallic nanofillers, the thermal conductivity is often estimated using the Wiedemann-Franz law based on electrical conductivity; however, it remains a question whether the Wiedemann-Franz law still holds at nanoscale contacts. Through investigation of silver nanowires of varying sizes, we were able to demonstrate that the Lorenz number for silver nanowire increases with decreasing nanowire diameter. Examination of the corresponding electrical and thermal conductivities indicate that these changes are due to that the relative contribution of phonons becomes more significant as a result of elastic stiffening. Furthermore, we show that for silver nanowires, the contact thermal resistance is ~8 times lower than that of multi-walled carbon nanotube (MWCNT) of similar diameters. Additionally, through systematic studies of electrospun polymer-silver nanowire composite nanofibers, we investigated the impact of interface morphology on the thermal conductivity enhancement of the composite system and probed the value of the Kapitza resistance for individual polymer-filler interfaces. For polymer nanofibers containing continuous, single silver nanowires, the thermal conductivity increases linearly with increasing volume fraction of silver, which is consistent with the prediction of percolation theory for samples above the percolation limit. By comparing this linear trend to the measured thermal conductivities of composite nanofibers with more complex structures, we were able to determine the resistance associated with any additional polymer-filler boundaries. In doing so we find that the thermal boundary resistance for polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP)–silver interfaces is significantly lower than that of comparable polymer-MWCNT composite systems.Together our studies provide new insights into thermal transport in polymer nanocomposites and should help facilitate the design of high performance polymeric thermal interface material.

Thermal transport↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Understanding Thermal Transport in Polymer - Silver Nanowire Composites

Understanding thermal transport across filler-polymer interfaces and filler-filler contacts within polymer composites is of great importance for better thermal design of the composites that are widely used in high-performance heat exchangers, energy storage devices, and flexible electronics. Over the past several decades, considerable progress has been made in improving the thermal conductivity of polymer composites, but several key questions concerning the influence of interfacial thermal resistance, or Kapitza resistance, still remain. Firstly, the thermal properties of these composites are highly dependent on thermal transport through the filler network and its contacts. For metallic nanofillers, the thermal conductivity is often estimated using the Wiedemann-Franz law based on electrical conductivity; however, it remains a question whether the Wiedemann-Franz law still holds at nanoscale contacts. Through investigation of silver nanowires of varying sizes, we were able to demonstrate that the Lorenz number for silver nanowire increases with decreasing nanowire diameter. Examination of the corresponding electrical and thermal conductivities indicate that these changes are due to that the relative contribution of phonons becomes more significant as a result of elastic stiffening. Furthermore, we show that for silver nanowires, the contact thermal resistance is ~8 times lower than that of multi-walled carbon nanotube (MWCNT) of similar diameters. Additionally, through systematic studies of electrospun polymer-silver nanowire composite nanofibers, we investigated the impact of interface morphology on the thermal conductivity enhancement of the composite system and probed the value of the Kapitza resistance for individual polymer-filler interfaces. For polymer nanofibers containing continuous, single silver nanowires, the thermal conductivity increases linearly with increasing volume fraction of silver, which is consistent with the prediction of percolation theory for samples above the percolation limit. By comparing this linear trend to the measured thermal conductivities of composite nanofibers with more complex structures, we were able to determine the resistance associated with any additional polymer-filler boundaries. In doing so we find that the thermal boundary resistance for polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP)–silver interfaces is significantly lower than that of comparable polymer-MWCNT composite systems. Together our studies provide new insights into thermal transport in polymer nanocomposites and should help facilitate the design of high performance polymeric thermal interface material.

Matthew L. Fitzgerald↗
NASA NTRS2021

Electrified Aircraft Propulsion Systems: Gas Turbine Control Considerations for the Mitigation of Potential Failure Modes and Hazards

This paper provides a high-level review of the potential failure modes and hazards to which electrified aircraft propulsion (EAP) systems are susceptible along with potential gas turbine control-based strategies to assist in the mitigation of those failures. To introduce the types of failures that an EAP system may experience, a generic EAP system is considered consisting of gas turbine engines, mechanical drives, electric machines, power electronics and distribution systems, energy storage devices, and motor driven propulsors. The functionality provided by each of these EAP subsystems is discussed along with their potential failure modes and possible strategies for mitigating those failures. To further illustrate the role of gas turbine controls in mitigating EAP failure modes, an example based on a simulated EAP concept aircraft proposed by NASA is given. The effects of failures are discussed, along with turbomachinery control strategies, including reversionary control modes, and control limit logic

Electrified Aircraft Propulsion↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Predicting Thermal Response in a Li-ion Cell on a UAV Fight Profile

As the energy storage devices continue to "pack" more energy in a small space, any damage, battery component failure, manufacturing defect, or electrically abusing the battery can lead to catastrophic thermal runaway events. A catastrophic thermal event in a cell leads to high temperature, in some instances spewing of battery materials due to gas development from side reactions initiated due to high internal temperatures. Also, a thermal runaway event can propagate from a single "failed" cell to the pack in a battery pack, leading to a more significant event. Mitigating a thermal runaway event is important in the commercial and automotive sectors. However, preventing such events in an electric aircraft (or air taxis) is paramount due to the lack of alternatives in the event of a failure. Battery prognostics algorithms allow the prediction of state-of-charge (SOC) and end-of-life (EOL) of a Li-ion battery in a UAV (unmanned air vehicle) [1]. For this presentation, we will extend this two-level battery predictive algorithm to predict SOC, EOL, and estimated maximum temperature during a simulated flight. The model is extended by integrating a lumped physics-driven thermal model for high current densities [2]. The parameters used to control SOC and EOL are maximum storable charge, time constant for Li-ion diffusivity in the carbon particles, and internal cell resistance. Cycling leads to an increase in the heat generated by an aged Li-ion cell with a LiyCoO2 (LCO) cathode and a LixC6 (MCMB) anode. The aging of a cell leads to increase in SEI layer thickness, the diffusion time for the lithium ions inside the electrodes, and the local reaction rates, in addition to the thermodynamic abuse caused by fixed cycling voltages controlled by a Battery Management System. As the battery ages, the cell resistance increases, while the onset temperature of the thermal runaway decreases (depends on the cell chemistry and cell abuse history). Any large deviation of the cell temperature from the estimated (expected) value can identify a faulty cell. Since SEI decomposition has the lowest onset temperature in the series of reactions leading to thermal runaway, the model considers the self-heating rate of the SEI decomposition as onset temperature (similar to Ref. [3]). The parameters in the Arrhenius equation for the SEI heating rate depend on the number of cycles, the cell's operating temperature, and the cell's abuse history [4,5]. Coupling the electrochemical, thermal, and aging model allow the prognostic algorithm to estimate a typical cell voltage and temperature as a function of age (cycling and calendar), whose departure from measured values from the BMS is used to identify a safety event. In addition, we will present the results from two simulated flight scenarios for a UAV: typical and extreme, since the power requirements vary significantly during take-off, landing, and changing altitudes, while the power requirements remain low during the cruise. For this presentation, the power requirement for a battery pack in a UAV is scaled to a single cell. This cell is cycled through a simulated profile, and the data is collected and used to predict a safety event.

Li-ion↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Predicting Maximum Thermal Response in a Li-ion Cell as a Thermal Runaway Predictor for a UAV Fight

As the energy storage devices continue to "pack" more energy in a small space, any damage, battery component failure, manufacturing defect, or electrically abusing the battery can lead to catastrophic thermal runaway events. A catastrophic thermal event in a cell leads to high temperature, in some instances to spewing of battery materials due to gas development from side reactions initiated due to high internal temperatures. Moreover, a thermal runaway can propagate from a single "failed" cell to a whole battery pack, resulting in a more serious event. The commercial and automotive sectors need to mitigate thermal runaway events. An electric aircraft (or air taxi) has no alternative in the event of a failure, so preventing such events is paramount. Currently, battery prognostics algorithms only predict the state-of-charge (SOC) and end-of-life (EOL) of a Li-ion battery in a UAV (unmanned air vehicle), but do not predict the maximum temperature during a flight or the likelihood of thermal runaway. Our current work focuses on adding the thermal model (based on Birkl's OCV model, in Ref. [1]) to the existing hybrid electrochemical model (single-particle model with lumped parameters as in Ref. [2]) to determine end-of-discharge, end-of-life, and maximum temperature during discharge.

Thermal runaway↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Design Exploration of a Mild Hybrid Electrified Aircraft Propulsion Concept

NASA has performed in-depth research and analysis into hybrid-electric aircraft concepts featuring high levels of electrification. Many of these concepts were found to be infeasible, whereas feasible designs were significantly heavier and more costly compared to conventional concepts. This study presents the development and analysis of an alternative mild hybrid concept that uses relatively low levels of stored electric energy applied strategically throughout the mission. The team researched several mild hybrid technologies, developed integrated aircraft models, and then evaluated the effects of these technologies on vehicle level performance metrics. Technologies explored in this study include the Turbine Electrified Energy Management system, electric taxi, electric climb assist, and replacing the auxiliary power unit with on-board electric energy storage. Key enabling technologies were energy storage devices that prioritized high power output over energy capacity and integrating electric motors with the shafts of the gas turbine engines. Significant performance improvements were observed when applying multiple technologies separately and in combination, with the most promising configuration incorporating all of them at once. Results for the mild hybrid configuration indicate an 8.2% reduction in block fuel, a 7.7% reduction in equivalent CO2 emissions, and a 3.5% increase in gross takeoff weight compared to a conventional baseline. Results of a cost analysis suggest the mild hybrid slightly reduces direct operating cost plus interest, which demonstrates that aircraft emissions can be significantly reduced without the cost increases associated with highly electrified concepts.

Turbine Electrified Energy Managment↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Initial Development of A Digital Twin Model for an Electrified Aircraft Propulsion Emulation Rig

In support of aviation fuel burn and emission reduction goals, NASA is pursing high-payoff research investments that promise to transform aviation. This includes investments in Electrified Aircraft Propulsion (EAP), which relies on the generation, storage, transmission, and use of electrical power for producing thrust and optimizing propulsion system efficiency. Multiple technology challenges must be addressed to unlock the full potential of EAP. This includes advances in propulsion controls, which will be vital for ensuring coordinated efficient operation of the complex integrated subsystems that comprise EAP architectures. To support EAP controls research, the NASA Glenn Research Center has developed the Hybrid Propulsion Emulation Rig (HyPER). The HyPER laboratory hardware includes shaft-mounted electric machines, power converters, power supplies, power distribution cables, and an energy storage device that can be reconfigured to represent a variety of EAP architectures. It also includes an integrated real-time computer system that hosts developed EAP control software and turbomachinery simulations. This enables the electrical system and rotating shafts of EAP designs to be implemented in actual hardware and integrated with turbomachinery simulations and system-level EAP control logic implemented in software. In this form, the HyPER laboratory provides a partially simulated, partially hardware-in-the-loop test environment enabling the initial development and evaluation of EAP control technology. A prerequisite for the development of EAP control designs is the availability of a system model that accurately reflects the operation of the electrical system hardware. To support this need, a digital twin model of the HyPER electrical system hardware is under development. This model is being coded in the MATLAB Simulink environment and uses the NASA-developed Electrical Modeling and Thermal Analysis Toolbox (EMTAT) to construct a digital twin framework. EMTAT contains generic electrical component building blocks that are simulated at turbomachinery timescales. Associated inputs and outputs allow the blocks to be combined to model complete electrical systems. The EMTAT blocks also contain adjustable internal maps and parameters that can be set to reflect the operation of a specific electrical component. For the HyPER digital twin, the settings of these EMTAT block internal maps and parameters is determined through machine learning approaches applied to characterization run data collected from the laboratory. During characterization runs the laboratory electrical system hardware is subjected to a full range of torque, speed, and power settings. Acquired data is then used to estimate EMTAT block parameters using a variety of machine learning techniques. The resulting digital twin model is found to match the operation of actual HyPER hardware with an accuracy suitable for control development purposes. It also holds promise for other applications including modeling the performance of HyPER laboratory reconfigurations and model-based anomaly detection. Planned follow-on work to automate post-processing of acquired laboratory data to update the HyPER digital twin model will also be presented and discussed.

Electrified Aircraft Propulsion↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Some Aeronautical Communications Experiments

Classically there has existed an asymmetry between the computing and communicating sides of aerospace systems. Over the past few decades, this asymmetry has shifted to favoring communication link technologies, meaning that advancements in available central processing units (CPUs), storage devices, and internal data buses have stagnated. Indeed, the increased emphasis placed on refining subsystem performance such as with antenna bandwidth in phased arrays, amplifier power efficiency, software defined radio (SDR) flexibility and encoding for data compression and error correction has given rise to successful debuts of multi-gigabit-per-second data return from long space-link distances. These accomplishments are easily quantifiable through link budgets and illustrate what is possible, but also reveal the deficiencies in overall communications capabilities. In particular, the ever-accelerating presence of aerospace vehicles gives rise to newer and larger classes of challenges to address the needs of 21st century systems. Furthermore remote sensing and imaging capabilities have far outpaced our ability to transmit their products to the ground, so we are increasingly dependent on pre-processing and downselection to contend with the communications bottleneck. No longer may we depend upon the constrained logistics in delivering end-to-end data delivery through manual reconfigurations, static event scheduling and execution on a per-vehicle basis, for these methods do not scale and therefore must give way to dynamic, networked approaches with an overall systems view in mind. Emerging mission requirements exhibit a trend toward multiple smaller-scale vehicles working together to perform dissimilar observations. Such operations necessitate sensor fusion across a constellation, and where data processing may be distributed throughout a fairly disconnected network whose topology changes over time in non-deterministic manners. Individual communications link performance is still very relevant to deploying an effective communications system, but now must be embedded within a greater architecture of capability to optimally utilize the bandwidth available from each link to generate an ultimate end-to-end quality of service. The deleterious effects of timing uncertainty across the arrangement presents a challenge to measurement synchronization and delivery, so a successful deployed system needs to be tolerant to the delays inherent in time-of-light between elements and digital processing latencies existing at each node. In this presentation we share the flight test results from a high performance Gbps laser communications terminal evaluated with a suite of store and forward capabilities called High-rate Delay Tolerant Networking (HDTN). The communications payload is operated over Lake Erie across a range of configurations including several convergence layers, and is evaluated to determine recovery time after link disruptions, information loss, efficiency and speed. The effectiveness of utilizing a flying laboratory to increase the Technology Readiness Level (TRL) of an integrated system in relevant environments is discussed, as well as the value of conducting aeronautics experiments to retire risk for technology infusion into space missions. Upcoming flight campaigns will be presented, including opportunities to demonstrate secure command and control, data intensive hyperspectral imaging, quantum link characterization, 4k High Definition (HD) video streaming and internetworked space-ground-aero relay operations. These experiments will pave the way for future missions which will depend upon interoperability across disparate government and privately owned networks, involve contention with uncertain and dynamic timing, and require agility to autonomously configure optimal parameters across networks of ever-increasing size and complexity to ensure data delivery. https://www1.grc.nasa.gov/space/scan/acs/tech-studies/dtn/

Daniel Raible↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Cathode Modeling of Solid-State Batteries

The search for safe, reliable, and compact high-capacity energy storage devices has led to increased interest in all-solid-state battery research. The use of solid electrolytes provides enhanced safety and durability due to their reduced flammability and increased mechanical strength compared to organic liquid electrolytes. Still, the use of solid electrolytes remains challenging. Computational modeling plays a substantial role in addressing these challenges. A particle dynamics electromechanical model for simulating electrochemical processes in a solid-state battery cathode will be presented. The model presents cathode microstructure at the particle level as a mixture of ionically conductive solid electrolyte particles, electrically conductive carbon additives, and cathodic reactant particles. After densification, the particle connectivity is analyzed to reconstruct the complex electric network connecting reactant particles with an anodic and cathodic current collectors through the electrolyte and carbon particles. The Kirchhoff’s matrix equation describing this electric network, is solved to obtain values of various critical parameters, such as the overall conductivity of the cathode for lithium ions and electrons, cathodic reactant material utilization, and the distribution of the electric current and voltages within the cathode. In addition, by representing the reactant particles as electrolyte or galvanic microcells governed by the Butler-Volmer electrochemical equation, the overall performance of battery cells during charge or discharge processes, respectively, can be predicted for a given cathodic powder composition. The presented model, executed on a high-performance computing architecture, essentially provides a valuable guidance in designing and developing future solid-state batteries.

solid-state battery↗
NASA NTRS1976

Effects of nuclear radiation and elevated temperature storage on electroexplosive devices

Aerospace type electroexplosive devices (EEDs) were subjected to nuclear radiation. Components and chemicals used in the EEDs were also included. The kind of radiation and total dosage administered were those which may be experienced in a space flight of 10 years duration, based on information available at this time. After irradiation, the items were stored in elevated constant-temperature ovens to accelerate early effects of the exposure to radiation. Periodically, samples were withdrawn for visual observation and testing. Significant changes occurred which were attributed to elevated-temperature storage and not radiation.

Menichelli, V. J.↗
NASA NTRS2010

Low Mass Printable Devices for Energy Capture, Storage, and Use for Space Exploration Missions

The energy-efficient, environmentally friendly technology that will be presented is the result of a Space Act Agreement between -Technologies Worldwide, Inc., and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration s (NASA s) Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC). This work combines semiconductor and printing technologies to advance lightweight electronic and photonic devices having excellent potential for commercial and exploration applications, and is an example of industry and government cooperation that leads to novel inventions. Device development involves three energy generation and consumption projects: 1) a low mass efficient (low power, low heat emission) micro light-emitting diode (LED) area lighting device; 2) a low-mass omni-directional efficient photovoltaic (PV) device with significantly improved energy capture; and 3) a new approach to building supercapacitors. These three technologies - energy capture, storage, and usage (e.g., lighting) - represent a systematic approach for building efficient local micro-grids that are commercially feasible; furthermore, these same technologies will be useful for lightweight power generation that enables inner planetary missions using smaller launch vehicles and facilitates surface operations. The PV device model is a two-sphere, light-trapped sheet approximately 2-mm thick. The model suggests a significant improvement over current thin film systems. All three components may be printed in line by printing sequential layers on a standard screen or flexographic direct impact press using the threedimensional printing technique (3DFM) patented by NthDegree. MSFC is testing the robustness of prototype devices in the harsh space and lunar surface environments, and available results will be reported. Unlike many traditional light sources, this device does not contain toxic compounds, and the LED component has passed stringent off-gassing tests required for potential manifesting on spacecraft such as the International Space Station. Future exploration missions will benefit from "green" technology lighting devices such as this, which show great promise for both terrestrial use and space missions.

Frazier, Donald O.↗
NASA NTRS2010

Low Mass Printable Devices for Energy Capture, Storage, and Use

The energy-efficient, environmentally friendly technology that will be presented is the result of a Space Act Agreement between NthDegree Technologies Worldwide, Inc., and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration's (NASA's) Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC). The work combines semiconductor and printing technologies to advance lightweight electronic and photonic devices having excellent potential for commercial and exploration applications. Device development involves three projects that relate to energy generation and consumption: (1) a low-mass efficient (low power, low heat emission) micro light-emitting diode (LED) area lighting device; (2) a low-mass omni-directional efficient photovoltaic (PV) device with significantly improved energy capture; and (3) a new approach to building super-capacitors. These three technologies, energy capture, storage, and usage (e.g., lighting), represent a systematic approach for building efficient local micro-grids that are commercially feasible; furthermore, these same technologies, appropriately replacing lighting with lightweight power generation, will be useful for enabling inner planetary missions using smaller launch vehicles and to facilitate surface operations during lunar and planetary surface missions. The PV device model is a two sphere, light trapped sheet approximately 2-mm thick. The model suggests a significant improvement over current thin film systems. For lighting applications, all three technology components are printable in-line by printing sequential layers on a standard screen or flexographic direct impact press using the three-dimensional printing technique (3DFM) patented by NthDegree. One primary contribution to this work in the near term by the MSFC is to test the robustness of prototype devices in the harsh environments that prevail in space and on the lunar surface. It is anticipated that this composite device, of which the lighting component has passed off-gassing testing, will function appropriately in such environments consistent with NASA s exploration missions. Advanced technologies such as this show promise for both space flight and terrestrial applications.

Frazier, Donald O.↗
NASA NTRS2010

System for energy harvesting and/or generation, storage, and delivery

A device and method for harvesting, generating, storing, and delivering energy to a load, particularly for remote or inaccessible applications. The device preferably comprises one or more energy sources, at least one supercapacitor, at least one rechargeable battery, and a controller. The charging of the energy storage devices and the delivery of power to the load is preferably dynamically varied to maximize efficiency. A low power consumption charge pump circuit is preferably employed to collect power from low power energy sources while also enabling the delivery of higher voltage power to the load. The charging voltage is preferably programmable, enabling one device to be used for a wide range of specific applications.

Trainor, John T.↗
NASA NTRS2011

System for energy harvesting and/or generation, storage, and delivery

A device and method for harvesting, generating, storing, and delivering energy to a load, particularly for remote or inaccessible applications. The device preferably comprises one or more energy sources, at least one supercapacitor, at least one rechargeable battery, and a controller. The charging of the energy storage devices and the delivery of power to the load is preferably dynamically varied to maximize efficiency. A low power consumption charge pump circuit is preferably employed to collect power from low power energy sources while also enabling the delivery of higher voltage power to the load. The charging voltage is preferably programmable, enabling one device to be used for a wide range of specific applications.

Trainor, John T.↗
NASA NTRS2001

Methods of use for sensor based fluid detection devices

Methods of use and devices for detecting analyte in fluid. A system for detecting an analyte in a fluid is described comprising a substrate having a sensor comprising a first organic material and a second organic material where the sensor has a response to permeation by an analyte. A detector is operatively associated with the sensor. Further, a fluid delivery appliance is operatively associated with the sensor. The sensor device has information storage and processing equipment, which is operably connected with the device. This device compares a response from the detector with a stored ideal response to detect the presence of analyte. An integrated system for detecting an analyte in a fluid is also described where the sensing device, detector, information storage and processing device, and fluid delivery device are incorporated in a substrate. Methods for use for the above system are also described where the first organic material and a second organic material are sensed and the analyte is detected with a detector operatively associated with the sensor. The method provides for a device, which delivers fluid to the sensor and measures the response of the sensor with the detector. Further, the response is compared to a stored ideal response for the analyte to determine the presence of the analyte. In different embodiments, the fluid measured may be a gaseous fluid, a liquid, or a fluid extracted from a solid. Methods of fluid delivery for each embodiment are accordingly provided.

Lewis, Nathan S.↗
NASA NTRS1977

Single-fill-point battery reservoir

Device is clear plastic manifold, which is filled with one pint of distilled water from single point and then is sealed with plastic cap. When snapped onto an existing storage battery, device provides steady source of water for uniform distribution to all cells.

Manoli, R.↗