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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 289 records · Page 16
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2022

Unconventional Charge Transport in MgCr 2 O 4 and Implications for Battery Intercalation Hosts

Ion transport in solid-state cathode materials prescribes a fundamental limit to the rates batteries can operate; therefore, an accurate understanding of ion transport is a critical missing piece to enable new battery technologies, such as magnesium batteries. Based on our conventional understanding of lithium-ion materials, MgCr 2 O 4 is a promising magnesium-ion cathode material given its high capacity, high voltage against an Mg anode, and acceptable computed diffusion barriers. Electrochemical examinations of MgCr 2 O 4 , however, reveal significant energetic limitations. Motivated by these disparate observations; herein, we examine long-range ion transport by electrically polarizing dense pellets of MgCr 2 O 4 . Our conventional understanding of ion transport in battery cathode materials, e.g., Nernst-Einstein conduction, cannot explain the measured response since it neglects frictional interactions between mobile species and their nonideal free energies. In this work, we propose an extended theory that incorporates these interactions and reduces to the Nernst-Einstein conduction under dilute conditions. This theory describes the measured response, and we report the first study of long-range ion transport behavior in MgCr 2 O 4 . We conclusively show that the Mg chemical diffusivity is comparable to lithium-ion electrode materials, whereas the total conductivity is rate-limiting. Given these differences, energy storage in MgCr 2 O 4 is limited by particle-scale voltage drops, unlike lithium-ion particles that are limited by concentration gradients. Future materials design efforts should consider the interspecies interactions described in this extended theory, particularly with respect to multivalent-ion systems and their resultant effects on continuum transport properties.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2023

Fast Charge Induced Phase Evolution and Element Contribution of Nickel-Rich Layered Cathode for Lithium-Ion Batteries

In nickel-rich layered cathode materials, three transition metals (TM = Ni, Co and Mn) play critical roles in Li storage performance. However, rate-dependent phase evolution and elemental contribution of nickel-rich cathode materials are not well understood, but very important for further design and development of these cathodes in high-power applications. Here, the rate-dependent phase evolution and elemental contribution of LiNi 0.5 Mn 0.3 Co 0.2 O 2 (NMC532) cathode are investigated thoroughly by using time-resolved synchrotron-based in situ X-ray diffraction and absorption techniques. The increase of Ni content in NMC532 has been found to be the main cause of the complex structural changes, resulting in distortion of TM-O 6 octahedron and strong static vibration between TM and O coordination. It is revealed that the fast charge (10C and 30C) of NMC532 leads to intermediate Li-poor phases, shrinking of H2 phase region, and prolonged O1 phase. During high-rate charging, Co is oxidized easily in low voltage region, while Ni mainly dominates charge compensation in high voltage region. It is found that delithiation-induced local structure distortion transfers from Ni to Co sites in fast kinetic process. In conclusion, these findings provide in-depth understanding for the fast charge behavior of Ni-rich layered cathode materials and help to guide further development of advanced high-power lithium-ion batteries.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2020

Sustainable recycling of cathode scraps via Cyrene-based separation

Separation of cathode materials from the current collector remains a challenging task for the recycling of both spent lithium-ion batteries and cathode scraps. Dissolving the organic binder polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF) with an organic solvent to recover both cathode materials and Al foils is an efficient and promising method. However, the use of toxic solvents limits their practical application in recycling large amounts of cathode scraps generated during the manufacturing process. Cyrene, a bioderived green solvent, is proposed here for a solvent-based separation process. This study investigated a closed-loop recovery process to reclaim cathode materials, Al foils, and PVDF binder from cathode scraps. Furthermore, the reuse of the Cyrene solvent led to a circular recycling process. Additionally, the Cyrene-based separation process embraces a sustainable electrode recovery and reuse platform and paves the way for battery recycling.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2022

Unravelling the Nature of the Intrinsic Complex Structure of Binary‐Phase Na‐Layered Oxides

Abstract The layered sodium transition metal oxide, NaTMO 2 (TM = transition metal), with a binary or ternary phases has displayed outstanding electrochemical performance as a new class of strategy cathode materials for sodium‐ion batteries (SIBs). Herein, an in‐depth phase analysis of developed Na 1− x TMO 2 cathode materials, Na 0.76 Ni 0.20 Fe 0.40 Mn 0.40 O 2 with P2‐ and O3‐type phases (NFMO‐P2/O3) is offered. Structural visualization on an atomic scale is also provided and the following findings are unveiled: i) the existence of a mixed‐phase intergrowth layer distribution and unequal distribution of P2 and O3 phases along two different crystal plane indices and ii) a complete reversible charge/discharge process for the initial two cycles that displays a simple phase transformation, which is unprecedented. Moreover, first‐principles calculations support the evidence of the formation of a binary NFMO‐P2/O3 compound, over the proposed hypothetical monophasic structures (O3, P3, O′3, and P2 phases). As a result, the synergetic effect of the simultaneous existence of P‐ and O‐type phases with their unique structures allows an extraordinary level of capacity retention in a wide range of voltage (1.5–4.5 V). It is believed that the insightful understanding of the proposed materials can introduce new perspectives for the development of high‐voltage cathode materials for SIBs.

Paidi, Anil K.↗
DOE OSTI2022

Chasing protons in lithium-ion batteries

Parasitic reactions between delithiated cathode materials and non-aqueous electrolytes have been a major barrier that limits the upper cutoff potential of cathode materials. It is of great importance to suppress such parasitic reactions to unleash the high-energy-density potential of high voltage cathode materials. Although major effort has been made to identify the chemical composition of the cathode electrolyte interface using various cutting edge characterization tools, the chemical nature of parasitic reactions remains a puzzle. This severely hinders the rational development of stable high voltage cathode/electrolyte pairs for high-energy density lithium-ion batteries. This report highlights our latest effort in understanding the chemical/electrochemical role of the cathode electrolyte interface using protons as a chemical tracer for parasitic reactions.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2025

Topotactic Phase Transformation of Lithiated Spinel to Layered LiMn0.5Ni0.5O2: The Interaction of 3-D and 2-D Li-ion Diffusion

This study investigates the structural evolution of LiMn0.5Ni0.5O2 cathode materials for Li-ion batteries as a function of synthesis temperature and its effect on electrochemical performance. It is demonstrated that, as the synthesis temperature increases from 400 to 900 ?C, a gradual topotactic transformation occurs between a lithiated spinel structure, denoted herein as “lithium-excess spinel” LxS-LiMn0.5Ni0.5O2 (or LxS-LMNO), and the well-known layered LiMn0.5Ni0.5O2 structure prepared at high temperature, HT-LiMn0.5Ni0.5O2 (HT-LMNO). The electrochemical capacity of the LiMn0.5Ni0.5O2 electrodes follows a parabolic trend with increasing synthesis temperature, which is attributed primarily to the gradual transformation of 3-dimensional (3-D) to 2-dimensional (2-D) diffusion pathways for the Li ions. When synthesized at 400 °C, LxS-LiMn0.5Ni0.5O2 electrodes perform well, benefitting from the 3-D network of channels within the LxS structure. By contrast, when prepared at 500-700 °C, LiMn0.5Ni0.5O2 electrodes operate poorly, which is attributed to the formation of locally disordered structural arrangements that impede Li-ion diffusion. Such an increase in local disorder in the mid-temperature synthesis range is attributed to the structural frustration between the lithium-excess spinal and layered end-members. The transformation from the locally disordered to more ordered layered components between 700 °C and 900 °C enhances electrochemical performance. The study opens new avenues for designing next-generation Mn-rich cathode materials by fine-tuning the synthesis conditions as well as the composition and structure of LxS-LMNO electrodes.

energy storage↗
DOE OSTI2021

Lithium metal pouch cells and methods of making the same

A lithium metal pouch cell having a specific energy ≥300 Wh·kg−1 includes an anode comprising lithium metal and an anode current collector, the anode having an areal capacity N (mAh·cm −2 ); a cathode comprising a cathode material and a cathode current collector, the cathode having an a real capacity P (mAh·cm −2 ), wherein a ratio of N/P is within a range of 0.02 to 5; an electrolyte having an electrolyte mass E and comprising a lithium active salt and a solvent, the lithium metal pouch cell having an electrolyte mass to cell capacity (E/C) ratio within a range of 1 to 6 g·Ah −1 ; a separator positioned between the anode and the cathode; and a packaging material defining a pouch enclosing the anode, cathode, electrolyte, and separator; wherein a protruding tab of the anode current collector and a protruding tab of the cathode current collector are external to the pouch.

Xiao, Jie↗
DOE OSTI2023

Lithium metal pouch cells and methods of making the same

A lithium metal pouch cell having a specific energy ≥300 Wh·kg -1 includes an anode comprising lithium metal and an anode current collector, the anode having an areal capacity N (mAh·cm −2 ); a cathode comprising a cathode material and a cathode current collector, the cathode having an a real capacity P (mAh·cm −2 ), wherein a ratio of N/P is within a range of 0.02 to 5; an electrolyte having an electrolyte mass E and comprising a lithium active salt and a solvent, the lithium metal pouch cell having an electrolyte mass to cell capacity (E/C) ratio within a range of 1 to 6 g·Ah −1 ; a separator positioned between the anode and the cathode; and a packaging material defining a pouch enclosing the anode, cathode, electrolyte, and separator; wherein a protruding tab of the anode current collector and a protruding tab of the cathode current collector are external to the pouch.

Xiao, Jie↗
DOE OSTI2023

Stabilizing the Deep Sodiation Process in Layered Sodium Manganese Cathodes by Anchoring Boron Ions

Advanced high-energy-density sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) are inseparable from cathode materials with high specific capacities. Layered manganese-rich oxides (Na x MnO 2 , 0.6 ≤ x ≤1) are promising cathode materials owing to their ease of intercalation and extraction of a considerable amount of sodium ions. However, lattice interactions, especially electrostatic repulsive forces and anisotropic stresses, are usually caused by deep desodiatin/sodiation process, resulting in intragranular cracks and capacity degradation in SIBs. Here, boron ions are introduced into the layered structure to build up B-O-Mn bonds. Further, the regulated electronic structure in Na 0.637 B 0.038 MnO 2 (B-NMO) materials inhibits the deformation of MnO 6 octahedra, which finally achieves a gentle structural transition during the deep sodiation process. B-NMO electrode exhibits a high capacity (141 mAh g –1 ) at 1 C with a capacity retention of 81% after 100 cycles. Therefore, anchoring boron to manganese-rich materials inhibits the detrimental structural evolution of deep sodiation and can be used to obtain excellent cathode materials for SIBs.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2024

High-entropy Li-rich layered oxide cathode for Li-ion batteries

High-entropy oxides (HEOs) are emerging as promising cathode materials for Li-ion batteries (LIBs) due to their stable solid-state phase and compositional flexibility. Herein, we investigate the structural and electrochemical properties of a novel non-equimolar high-entropy cathode material, termed high-entropy Li-rich layered oxide (HE-LLO, Li 1.15 Na 0.05 Ni 0.19 Mn 0.56 Fe 0.02 Mg 0.02 Al 0.02 O 1.97 F 0.03 ), in comparison to a pristine Li-rich layered oxide (PR-LLO, Li1.2Ni0.2Mn0.6O2). The incorporation of multiple cations (Na + , Al 3+ , Mg 2+ , Fe 3+ ) and anion (F - ) into HE-LLO introduces compositional diversity, enhancing structural stability through the entropy stabilization effect. Theoretical calculations confirm a significantly higher configurational entropy in HE-LLO compared to PRLLO, supporting its high-entropy nature. Electrochemical evaluations demonstrate that HE-LLO exhibits considerable capacity retention, preserving 76.8 % of its discharge capacity at 0.5C after 200 cycles, compared to only 36.2 % for PR-LLO. Even under high-temperature conditions, HE-LLO outperformed PR-LLO, maintaining 76.1 % of its discharge capacity after 100 cycles at 5C, while PR-LLO retained only 12.4 %. These enhancements are attributed to the improved phase reversibility and higher Li + ion diffusion coefficients of HE-LLO, validated by ex-situ characterizations using a synchrotron X-ray technique, along with density functional theory (DFT) calculations. In conclusion, these findings highlight the promise of non-equimolar HEOs as a novel design strategy for highperformance cathode materials.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2022

Targeted masking enables stable cycling of LiNi 0.6 Co 0.2 Mn 0.2 O 2 at 4.6V

Layered LiNi x Co y Mn 1–x-y O 2 (NCM, or NCMxy(1-x-y)) is a dominant family of cathode materials for lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) due to its high energy density. Among all NCM cathode materials, NCM622 possess the optimal energy density at high potential (≥ 4.6 V vs. Li/Li + ). However, the practical application of NCM622 at high voltage (≥ 4.6 V) is limited by its parasitic reactions and associated safety concerns. Completely physical isolation has been considered as the main approach to mitigate the parasitic reaction. It has also been previously demonstrated that the interface reaction has active site selectivity, and that the reactivity of the active sites can effectively suppressed by blocking the chemically active sites. Herein, a targeted masking by LiFePO 4 @C nanoplates is reported to unlock the stable performance of NCM622 up to 4.6 V vs. Li/Li + . The (targeted masked-NCM622)|graphite pouch cell shows 86.5% capacity retention after 1000 cycles and its maximum temperature during thermal runaway is dramatically reduced from 570 °C to 415 °C. Systematic in/ex situ characterizations, first-principles calculations and half/pouch targeted LiFePO 4 @C covers the surface of NCM partcell evaluation prove that PO 4 3- is preferentially adsorbed on transition metal sites, stabilizing both the transition metal ions and oxygen ions on the surface against the ethylene carbonate-containing traditional electrolyte even under high voltage (≥ 4.6 V vs. Li/Li + ). Furthermore, this work opens up new venue for rational design of high-performance cathode materials through a low-cost and scalable decoration process, and reveal a new understanding of interfacial activity of materials.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2023

Unveiling the parasitic-reaction-driven surface reconstruction in Ni-rich cathode and the electrochemical role of Li 2 CO 3

Nickel-rich transition-metal oxides are widely regarded as promising cathode materials for high-energy-density lithium-ion batteries for emerging electric vehicles. However, achieving high energy density in Ni-rich cathodes is accompanied by substantial safety and cycle-life obstacles. The major issues of Ni-rich cathodes at high working potentials are originated from the unstable cathode-electrolyte interface, while the underlying mechanism of parasitic reactions towards surface reconstructions of cathode materials is not well understood. In this work, we controlled the Li 2 CO 3 impurity content on LiNi 0.83 Mn 0.1 Co 0.07 O 2 cathodes using air, tank-air, and O 2 synthesis environments. Home-built high-precision leakage current and on-line electrochemical mass spectroscopy experiments verify that Li 2 CO 3 impurity is a significant promoter of parasitic reactions on Ni-rich cathodes. The rate of parasitic reactions is strongly correlated to Li 2 CO 3 content and severe performance deterioration of Ni83 cathodes. The post-mortem characterizations via high-resolution transition electron microscope and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy depth profiles reveal that parasitic reactions promote more Ni reduction and O deficiency and even rock-salt phase transformation at the surface of cathode materials. Here, our observation suggests that surface reconstructions have a strong affiliation to parasitic reactions that create chemically acidic environment to etch away the lattice oxygen and offer the electrical charge to reduce the valence state of transition metal. Thus, this study advances our understanding on surface reconstructions of Ni-rich cathodes and prepares us for searching for rational strategies.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2021

Realizing continuous cation order-to-disorder tuning in a class of high-energy spinel-type Li-ion cathodes

Conventional Li-ion cathode materials are dominated by well-ordered structures, in which Li and transition metals occupy distinct crystallographic sites. Here, we show in this paper that profoundly new degrees of freedom for the optimization of electrochemical properties may be accessed if controllable cation disorder is introduced. In a class of high-capacity spinel-type cathode materials, we identify cation to anion ratio in synthesis as a key parameter for tuning the structure continuously from a well-ordered spinel, through a partially ordered spinel, to rocksalt. We find that the varying degree of cation disorder modifies the voltage profile, rate capability, and charge-compensation mechanism in a rational and predictable way. Our results indicate that spinel-type order is most beneficial for achieving high-rate performance as long as the cooperative 8a to 16c phase transition is suppressed, while more rocksalt-like disorder facilitates O redox, which can increase capacity. Our findings reveal an important tuning handle for achieving high energy and power in the vast space of partially ordered cathode materials.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2023

Structure design enables stable anionic and cationic redox chemistry in a T2-type Li-excess layered oxide cathode

Coupled with anionic and cationic redox chemistry, Li-rich/excess cathode materials are prospective high-energy-density candidates for the next-generation Li-ion batteries. However, irreversible lattice oxygen loss would exacerbate irreversible transition metal migration, resulting in a drastic voltage decay and capacity degeneration. Herein, a metastable layered Li-excess cathode material, T2-type Li 0.72 [Li 0.12 Ni 0.36 Mn 0.52 ]O 2 , was developed, in which both oxygen stacking arrangement and Li coordination environment fundamentally differ from that in conventional O3-type layered structures. By means of the reversible Li migration processes and structural evolutions, not only can voltage decay be effectively restrained, but also excellent capacity retention can be achieved upon long-term cycling. Moreover, irreversible/reversible anionic/cationic redox activities have been well assigned and quantified by various in/ex-situ spectroscopic techniques, further clarifying the charge compensation mechanism associated with (de)lithiation. These findings of the novel T2 structure with the enhanced anionic redox stability will provide a new scope for the development of high-energy-density Li-rich cathode materials.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2021

Anionic Oxygen Redox in the High-Lithium Material Li 8 SnO 6

Lithiated transition metal oxide cathode materials that combine oxygen-anion redox [O 2 – /(O 2 ) n– ] with cation redox offer substantial capacities and higher voltage than cathodes without oxygen redox, but oxygen-anion redox is usually accompanied by the formation of peroxo or superoxo species that may cause oxygen release. To clarify the relationship between the oxygen release and peroxide and superoxide dimers without the complication of transition-metal redox, we performed density functional theory calculations to study the layered Li 8 SnO 6 cathode because it has only oxygen-anion redox during delithiation. Features with O–O distances of ~1.5 Å (corresponding to the formation of a peroxide) were observed at 75% lithium concentration, and further delithiation to 62.5% lithium concentration shortened the O–O bond distance to ~1.3 Å (corresponding to the formation of superoxide). The solely anionic oxygen redox stabilizes the delithiated structure of Li 8–x SnO 6 , and it does not cause structural disorder or release oxygen gas. Ab initio molecular dynamics calculations in the supercell at 300 K indicate that oxygen dimerization may occur at 75% lithium concentration. On the (0001) surface with a high lithium concentration (98%), oxygen dimerization is unfavorable. The calculations by HSE06 show that oxygen redox in Li 8 SnO 6 offers an initial voltage (vs Li/Li + ) greater than 4.2 V. The GGA+U calculations indicate that the Li + -polaron in Li 95 Sn 12 O 72 migrates with a migration barrier of only 0.43 eV. Here, this work also quantifies a solely anionic oxygen redox mechanism in Li 8 SnO 6 , and it provides a deeper understanding of anionic oxygen redox in Li-excess oxide cathode materials.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2023

Redox Mechanisms and Migration Tendencies in Earth-Abundant 0.7Li 2 MnO 3 ·0.3LiFeO 2 Cathodes: Coupling Spin-Resolved X-ray Absorption Near Edge and X-ray Absorption Fine Structure Spectroscopies

We report the use of iron 1s3p resonant X-ray emission processes to conduct spin-selective, high-energy resolution fluorescence detected X-ray absorption near-edge spectroscopy (HERFD-XANES) on an iron-containing, lithium- and manganese-rich, fully earth-abundant cathode material, Li 1.3 Mn 0.5 Fe 0.2 O 2 (0.7Li 2 MnO 3 ·0.3LiFeO 2 ). Coupling this technique with conventional Mn K-edge XANES and detailed extended X-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS) analysis from both the Mn and Fe vantage points, we gain fundamental insights into the redox processes and migration tendencies of transition metals in this cathode material at the bulk level. We show that during the first charge, Fe 3+ undergoes oxidation to form Fe 4+ prior to the activation plateau. Toward the end of activation, a significant fraction of the iron is present as tetrahedral Fe 3+ . This observation reveals that iron migration from octahedral to tetrahedral sites and iron reduction are initiated during activation. Upon first discharge from the activated state, a continuous and overlapping reduction of both Fe and Mn is observed, with Fe largely restored back as an octahedrally coordinated Fe 3+ . The manganese local environment gradually changes to a distorted cooperative Jahn–Teller Mn 3+ structure during discharge, with the clear presence of two Mn–O as well as two Mn–Mn correlation distances at 2.0 V. The significant reduction of manganese in the very first discharge is distinctly different from that seen in typical nickel-based lithium-manganese-rich materials but is similar to that observed for pure Li 2 MnO 3 . In conclusion, these findings shed light on key structure–property correlations in the cathode material and point to a causative relationship between the redox mechanisms as well as structural changes endured by the material and relatively poor performance during extended electrochemical cycling.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2021

Mechanisms of Water-Stimulated Mg 2+ Intercalation in Vanadium Oxide: Toward the Development of Hydrated Vanadium Oxide Cathodes for Mg Batteries

As lithium-ion batteries approach their theoretical limits for energy density, magnesium-ion batteries are emerging as a promising next-generation energy storage technology. However, progress in magnesium-ion battery research has been stymied by a lack of available high capacity cathode materials that can reversibly insert magnesium ions. Vanadium Oxide (V 2 O 5 ) has emerged as one of the more promising candidate cathode materials, owing to its high theoretical capacity, facile synthesis methods, and relatively high operating voltage. This review focuses on the outlook of hydrated V 2 O 5 structures as a high capacity cathode material for magnesium-ion batteries. In general, V 2 O 5 structures exhibit poor experimental capacity for magnesium-ion insertion due to sluggish magnesium-ion insertion kinetics and poor electronic conductivity. However, several decades ago, it was discovered that the addition of water to organic electrolytes significantly improves magnesium-ion insertion into V 2 O 5 . This review clarifies the various mechanisms that have been used to explain this observation, from charge shielding to proton insertion, and offers an alternative explanation that examines the possible role of structural hydroxyl groups on the V 2 O 5 surface. While the mechanism still needs to be further studied, this discovery fueled new research into V 2 O 5 electrodes that incorporate water directly as a structural element. The most promising of these hydrated V 2 O 5 materials, many of which incorporate conductive additives, nanostructured architectures, and thin film morphologies, are discussed. Ultimately, however, these hydrated V 2 O 5 structures still face a significant barrier to potential applications in magnesium-ion batteries. During full cell electrochemical cycling, these hydrated structures tend to leach water into the electrolyte and passivate the surface of the magnesium anode, leading to poor cycle life and low capacity retention. Recently, some promising strides have been made to remedy this problem, including the use of artificial solid electrolyte interphase layers as an anode protection scheme, but a call to action for more anode protection strategies that are compatible with trace water and magnesium metal is required.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2020

Mitigating the Impact of Thermal Binder Removal for Direct Li-Ion Battery Recycling

Li-ion battery recycling will become critical to the management of end-of-life batteries from electric vehicles. Currently, it is a challenge to create a profitable recycling process, which is made more difficult by the reduction in cathode cobalt content. Maintenance of the cathode structure throughout the recycling process can yield increased revenues that may make recycling profitable. This method will require careful removal of the PVDF binder and carbon black, which can be achieved through thermal processing. Furthermore, it is necessary to mitigate the effects of the fluorine from the PVDF on the cathode material. Herein, we report a process that utilizes excess LiOH•H 2 O to react with this fluorine and thereby prevent lithium removal and doping of the cathode material. In addition, we demonstrate a one-step thermal process that can both remove the binder and relithiate the cathode material.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗