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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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NASA NTRS1992

Subvisual-thin cirrus lidar dataset for satellite verification and climatological research

A polarization (0.694 microns wavelength) lidar dataset for subvisual and thin (bluish-colored) cirrus clouds is drawn from project FIRE (First ISCCP Regional Experiment) extended time observations. The clouds are characterized by their day-night visual appearance; base, top, and optical midcloud heights and temperatures; measured physical and estimated optical cloud thicknesses; integrated linear depolarization ratios; and derived k/2 eta ratios. A subset of the data supporting 30 NOAA polar-orbiting satellite overpasses is given in tabular form to provide investigators with the means to test cloud retrieval algorithms and establish the limits of cirrus detectability from satellite measurements under various conditions. Climatologically, subvisual-thin cirrus appear to be higher, colder, and more strongly depolarizing than previously reported multilatitude cirrus, although similar k/2 eta that decrease with height and temperature are found.

Sassen, Kenneth↗
NASA NTRS2003

Geoscience Laser Altimeter System (GLAS) on the ICESat Mission: Initial Science Measurement Performance

The Geoscience Laser Altimeter System is the space lidar on the NASA ICESat mission. Its design combines an altimeter with 5 cm precision with a laser pointing angle determination system and a dual wavelength cloud and aerosol lidar. GLAS measures the range to the Earth s surface with 1064 nm laser pulses. Each laser pulse produces a precision pointing measurement from the stellar reference system (SRS) and an echo pulse waveform, which permits range determination and waveform spreading analysis. The single shot ranging accuracy is < 10 cm for ice surfaces with slopes < 2 degrees. GLAS also measures atmospheric backscatter profiles at both 1064 and 532 nm. The 1064 nm measurements use an analog Si APD detector and measure the height and profile the backscatter signal from thicker clouds. The measurements at 532 nm use photon counting detectors, and will measure the vertical height distributions of optically thin clouds and aerosol layers Before launch, the measurement performance of GLAS was evaluated using a lidar test instrument called the Bench Check Equipment (BCE). The BCE was developed in parallel with GLAS and served as an inverse altimeter, inverse lidar and a stellar source simulator. It was used to simulate the range of expected optical inputs to the GLAS receiver by illuminating its telescope with simulated background light as well as laser echoes with known powers, energy levels, widths and delay times. The BCE also allowed monitoring of the transmitted laser energy, the angle measurements of the SRS, the co-alignment of the transmitted laser beam to the receiver line of sight, and performance of the flight science algorithms. Performance was evaluated during the GLAS development, before and after environmental tests, and after delivery to the spacecraft. The ICESat observatory was launched into a 94 degree inclination, 590 km altitude circular polar orbit on January 12,2003. Beginning in early February, GLAS was powered on tested in stages. Its 1064 nm optical receiver was evaluated in a several tests using both solar background light and an internal test source. Laser 1 was activated on February 20,2003. GLAS operated with Laser 1 for 38 continuous days on orbit using its 1064 nm receiver channel, producing over 130 million individual laser measurements of the Earth s surface and atmosphere. These nadir-pointed measurements fell along the ICESat s ground track, and spanned more than 4 cycles of the initial 8-day ICESat repeat orbit. The initial GLAS measurement set shows strong echo pulses from ranging to the surface topography, oceans, ice sheets and cloud tops, as well as profiles of clouds and aerosols. The GLAS measurements have unprecedented vertical and angular resolution, and show nearly continuous height profiles of ice, land and ocean surfaces or cloud tops, as well profiles of backscatter from thin clouds and aerosol layers. Examples of these GLAS measurements and an initial assessment of its science measurement performance will be presented.

Abshire, James B.↗
NASA NTRS2008

Development and Testing of the VAHIRR Radar Product

Lightning Launch Commit Criteria (LLCC) and Flight Rules (FR) are used for launches and landings at government and commercial spaceports. They are designed to avoid natural and triggered lightning strikes to space vehicles, which can endanger the vehicle, payload, and general public. The previous LLCC and FR were shown to be overly restrictive, potentially leading to costly launch delays and scrubs. A radar algorithm called Volume Averaged Height Integrated Radar Reflectivity (VAHIRR), along with new LLCC and FR for anvil clouds, were developed using data collected by the Airborne Field Mill II research program. VAHIRR is calculated at every horizontal position in the coverage area of the radar and can be displayed similar to a two-dimensional derived reflectivity product, such as composite reflectivity or echo tops. It is the arithmetic product of two quantities not currently generated by the Weather Surveillance Radar 1988 Doppler (WSR-88D): a volume average of the reflectivity measured in dBZ and the average cloud thickness based on the average echo top height and base height. This presentation will describe the VAHIRR algorithm, and then explain how the VAHIRR radar product was implemented and tested on a clone of the National Weather Service's (NWS) Open Radar Product Generator (ORPG-clone). The VAHIRR radar product was then incorporated into the Advanced Weather Interactive Processing System (AWIPS), to make it more convenient for weather forecasters to utilize. Finally, the reliability of the VAHIRR radar product was tested with real-time level II radar data from the WSR-88D NWS Melbourne radar.

Barrett, Joe III↗
NASA NTRS1993

What determines the cloud-to-ground lightning fraction in thunderstorms?

The ratio of intracloud lightning (IC) to cloud-to-ground lightning (CG) in thunderstorms is observed to vary with latitude. The reason frequently given for this behavior is that the height of the freezing level, and hence the negative charge center in thunderstorms, varies with latitude, resulting in higher ratios in the tropics compared with those in midlatitudes. This study shows that this hypothesis could well be incorrect. Analysis of cloud and lightning data indicates that the IC/CG ratio is linked to the thickness of the cold cloud region in thunderstorms (0 C to cloud top), rather than to the freezing level height.

Price, Colin↗
NASA NTRS1993

Inference of cirrus cloud properties using satellite-observed visible and infrared radiances. I - Parameterization of radiance fields

The impact of using phase functions for spherical droplets and hexagonal ice crystals to analyze radiances from cirrus is examined. Adding-doubling radiative transfer calculations are employed to compute radiances for different cloud thicknesses and heights over various backgrounds. These radiances are used to develop parameterizations of top-of-the-atmosphere visible reflectance and IR emittance using tables of reflectances as a function of cloud optical depth, viewing and illumination angles, and microphysics. This parameterization, which includes Rayleigh scattering, ozone absorption, variable cloud height, and an anisotropic surface reflectance, reproduces the computed top-of-the-atmosphere reflectances with an accruacy of +/- 6 percent for four microphysical models: 10-micron water droplet, small symmetric crystal, cirrostratus, and cirrus uncinus. The accuracy is twice that of previous models.

Minnis, Patrick↗
NASA NTRS1982

Radar reflectivities and satellite imagery of severe storms 20 May 1977

Storms on 20 May 1977 generated a vast cirrus deck. Disturbed areas at storm top had equivalent black-body temperatures (T sub BB) much lower than the tropopause temperature, indicative of overshooting tops. The area of T sub BB not greater than -71 C represents the area of convective activity penetrating 2 km above the tropopause. This area was relatively large after cloud tops and radar reflectivities reached their maximum heights. It became much smaller during tornadoes when reflectivities were decreasing. T sub BB was at a minimum at the time of mesocyclone formation. The Del City storm had two periods of growth, as indicated both by reflectivities and the T sub BB areas. The mesocyclone was first detected during the second less intense period of growth; the tornado occurred during decreasing reflectivities. The maintenance of large areas of relatively low T sub BB after tornado dissipation is ascribed to continued convection on the flanks of the storm and to residual updrafts in a thick anvil cloud.

Wexler, R.↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

CERES Monthly Gridded Single Satellite Fluxes and Clouds (FSW) in HDF (CER_FSW_Terra-FM1-MODIS_Edition2C)

The Monthly Gridded Radiative Fluxes and Clouds (FSW) product contains a month of space and time averaged Clouds and the Earth's Radiant Energy System (CERES) data for a single scanner instrument. The FSW is also produced for combinations of scanner instruments. All instantaneous fluxes from the CERES CRS product for a month are sorted by 1-degree spatial regions and by the Universal Time (UT) hour of observation. The mean of the instantaneous fluxes for a given region-hour bin is determined and recorded on the FSW along with other flux statistics and scene information. The mean adjusted fluxes at the four atmospheric levels defined by CRS are also included for both clear-sky and total-sky scenes. In addition, four cloud height categories are defined by dividing the atmosphere into four intervals with boundaries at the surface, 700-, 500-, 300-hPa, and the Top-of-the-Atmosphere (TOA). The cloud layers from CRS are put into one of the cloud height categories and averaged over the region. The cloud properties are also column averaged and included on the FSW. [Location=GLOBAL] [Temporal_Coverage: Start_Date=1998-01-01; Stop_Date=2005-12-31] [Spatial_Coverage: Southernmost_Latitude=-90; Northernmost_Latitude=90; Westernmost_Longitude=-180; Easternmost_Longitude=180] [Data_Resolution: Latitude_Resolution=1 degree; Longitude_Resolution=1 degree; Horizontal_Resolution_Range=100 km - < 250 km or approximately 1 degree - < 2.5 degrees; Temporal_Resolution=1 month; Temporal_Resolution_Range=Monthly - < Annual].

NET FLUX↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

CERES) Monthly Gridded Single Satellite Fluxes and Clouds (FSW) in HDF (CER_FSW_Terra-FM2-MODIS_Edition2C)

The Monthly Gridded Radiative Fluxes and Clouds (FSW) product contains a month of space and time averaged Clouds and the Earth's Radiant Energy System (CERES) data for a single scanner instrument. The FSW is also produced for combinations of scanner instruments. All instantaneous fluxes from the CERES CRS product for a month are sorted by 1-degree spatial regions and by the Universal Time (UT) hour of observation. The mean of the instantaneous fluxes for a given region-hour bin is determined and recorded on the FSW along with other flux statistics and scene information. The mean adjusted fluxes at the four atmospheric levels defined by CRS are also included for both clear-sky and total-sky scenes. In addition, four cloud height categories are defined by dividing the atmosphere into four intervals with boundaries at the surface, 700-, 500-, 300-hPa, and the Top-of-the-Atmosphere (TOA). The cloud layers from CRS are put into one of the cloud height categories and averaged over the region. The cloud properties are also column averaged and included on the FSW. [Location=GLOBAL] [Temporal_Coverage: Start_Date=1998-01-01; Stop_Date=2001-10-31] [Spatial_Coverage: Southernmost_Latitude=-90; Northernmost_Latitude=90; Westernmost_Longitude=-180; Easternmost_Longitude=180] [Data_Resolution: Latitude_Resolution=1 degree; Longitude_Resolution=1 degree; Horizontal_Resolution_Range=100 km - < 250 km or approximately 1 degree - < 2.5 degrees; Temporal_Resolution=1 month; Temporal_Resolution_Range=Monthly - < Annual].

CLOUD OVERLAP↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

CERES Monthly Gridded Single Satellite Fluxes and Clouds (FSW) in HDF (CER_FSW_TRMM-PFM-VIRS_Beta1)

The Monthly Gridded Radiative Fluxes and Clouds (FSW) product contains a month of space and time averaged Clouds and the Earth's Radiant Energy System (CERES) data for a single scanner instrument. The FSW is also produced for combinations of scanner instruments. All instantaneous fluxes from the CERES CRS product for a month are sorted by 1-degree spatial regions and by the Universal Time (UT) hour of observation. The mean of the instantaneous fluxes for a given region-hour bin is determined and recorded on the FSW along with other flux statistics and scene information. The mean adjusted fluxes at the four atmospheric levels defined by CRS are also included for both clear-sky and total-sky scenes. In addition, four cloud height categories are defined by dividing the atmosphere into four intervals with boundaries at the surface, 700-, 500-, 300-hPa, and the Top-of-the-Atmosphere (TOA). The cloud layers from CRS are put into one of the cloud height categories and averaged over the region. The cloud properties are also column averaged and included on the FSW. [Location=GLOBAL] [Temporal_Coverage: Start_Date=1998-01-01; Stop_Date=2000-03-31] [Spatial_Coverage: Southernmost_Latitude=-90; Northernmost_Latitude=90; Westernmost_Longitude=-180; Easternmost_Longitude=180] [Data_Resolution: Latitude_Resolution=1 degree; Longitude_Resolution=1 degree; Horizontal_Resolution_Range=100 km - < 250 km or approximately 1 degree - < 2.5 degrees; Temporal_Resolution=1 month; Temporal_Resolution_Range=Monthly - < Annual].

CLOUD OVERLAP↗
NASA NTRS2024

Airborne lidar measurements of atmospheric CO 2 column concentrations to cloud tops made during the 2017 ASCENDS/ABoVE campaign

We measured the column-averaged atmospheric CO 2 mixing ratio (XCO 2 ) to a variety of cloud tops with an airborne pulsed multi-wavelength integrated path differential absorption (IPDA) lidar during NASA's 2017 ASCENDS/ABoVE airborne campaign. Measurements of height-resolved atmospheric backscatter profiles allow this lidar to retrieve XCO 2 to cloud tops, as well as to the ground, with accurate knowledge of the photon path length. We validated these measurements with those from an onboard in situ CO 2 sensor during spiral-down maneuvers. These lidar measurements were 2–3 times better than those from previous airborne campaigns due to our using a wavelength step-locked laser transmitter and a high-efficiency detector for this campaign. Precisions of 0.6 parts per million (ppm) were achieved for 10 s average measurements to mid-level clouds and 0.9 ppm to low-level clouds at the top of the planetary boundary layer. This study demonstrates the lidar's capability to fill in XCO 2 measurement gaps in cloudy regions and to help resolve the vertical and horizontal distributions of atmospheric CO 2 . Future airborne campaigns and spaceborne missions with this capability can be used to improve atmospheric transport modeling, flux estimation and carbon data assimilation.

Jianping Mao↗
NASA NTRS2012

Pulsed Lidar Measurements of Atmospheric CO2 Column Absorption in the ASCENDS 2011 Airborne Campaign

We have previously demonstrated an efficient pulsed, wavelength-resolved IPDA lidar technique for measuring the tropospheric CO2 concentrations as a candidate for NASA's ASCENDS mission. Our team participated in the 2010 ASCENDS airborne campaigns we flew airborne version of the CO2 and O2 lidar on the NASA DC-8. The CO2 lidar measures the atmospheric backscatter profiles and shape of the 1572.33 nm absorption line using 250 mW average laser power, 30 wavelength samples per scan and 300 scans per second. Most flights had 5-6 altitude steps to greater than 12 km, and clear CO2 line shapes were observed at all altitudes. Our post-flight analysis estimated the Iidar range and pulse energies at each wavelength every second. We then solved for the best-fit CO2 absorption line shape, and calculated the Differential Optical Depth (DOD) at the line peak. We compared these to CO2 DODs calculated from spectroscopy based on HITRAN 2008 and the conditions from airborne in-situ readings. Analysis of the 2010 measurements over the Pacific Ocean and Lamont OK shows the expected -linear change of the peak DOD with altitude. For measurements at altitudes greater than 6 km the random errors were approximately 0.3 ppm for 80 sec averaging times. After the 2010 flights we improved the airborne lidar's scan uniformity, calibration and receiver sensitivity. Our team participated in the seven ASCENDS science flights during late July and August 2011. These flights were made over a wide variety of surface and cloud conditions near the US, including over the central valley of California, over several mountain ranges, over both broken and solid stratus cloud deck over the Pacific Ocean, snow patches on mountain tops, over thin and broken clouds above the US Southwest and Iowa, and over forests near the WLEF tower in Wisconsin. Analyses show the retrievals of lidar range and CO2 column absorption, as wen as estimates of CO2 mixing ratio worked well when measuring over topography with rapidly changing height and reflectivity, through thin clouds and to stratus cloud tops. For regions where the CO2 concentration was relatively constant, the measured CO2 absorption profile (averaged for 50 sec) matched the predicted profile to better than 1% RMS error for all flight altitudes. For 1 & 10 second averaging, the scatter in the retrievals was limited by signal shot noise (i.e. the sigual photon count). Analysis to date shows the decrease in CO2 due to vegetation when flying easterward over the Great Plains as well as the increase in CO2 concentration in the vicinity ofthe coal-fired power plant in New Mexico. Examples of these and other results will be presented.

Abshire, James B.↗
NASA NTRS1992

SO2 on Venus: A final cross-calibration with Pioneer Venus

In our previous report, we noted that we had successfully completed all of the IUE observations which were proposed. A total of 7 Venus spectra were obtained. In the present reporting period, essentially all of the associated data reduction and analysis activities were completed, and Drs. Stern, Barker, and Na met to collaborate on data interpretation. The model atmosphere used in this analysis is similar to the one used in the analysis of the Pioneer Venus observations (Esposito, et al. 1979, 1988) and the previous IUE observations (Na, et al. 1990). In this model, sulfuric acid aerosols with a radius of about 1 micron are mixed uniformly with Rayleigh scattering gases throughout the cloud layer. There are two wavelength-independent absorbers. First, the aerosols are assumed to have a single scattering albedo of 0.98, and second a pure absorbing layer with an optical depth of 0.2 is added at an altitude of 75 mbar. The variable parameters in this model are the mixing ratios of SO2 at the cloud top (40 mbar level), and the scale height of SO2 at the same altitude. Model spectra were calculated using a radiative transfer code utilizing a Markov Chain method. Each model calculation takes into account the multiple scattering and the vertical inhomogeneity of the atmosphere. We reported those initial results at the 1992 meeting of the AAS Division of Planetary Sciences (Barker, Stern, and Na 1992) The important finding we have reached is that the 1991 IUE observations indicate that the long-term decline in Venus SO2 abundance has either halted or reversed. Our simultaneous groundbased measurements made on the McDonald Observatory 2.7 m corroborate this result. We are now preparing a paper describing these IUE results for publication in Icarus. With the IUE results reduced, we are also beginning a project to compare the 1991 IUE results to Pioneer Venus UV spectra made on the same dates.

Stern, S. Alan↗
NASA NTRS1995

Measurements of cloud condensation nuclei spectra within maritime cumulus cloud droplets: Implications for mixing processes

In a cloud formed during adiabatic expansion, the droplet size distribution will be systematically related to the critical supersaturation of the cloud condensation nuclei (CNN), but this relationship can be complicated in entraining clouds. Useful information about cloud processes, such as mixing, can be obtained from direct measurements of the CNN involved in droplet nucleation. This was accomplished by interfacing two instruments for a series of flights in maritime cumulus clouds. One instrument, the counterflow virtual impactor, collected cloud droplets, and the nonvolatile residual nuclei of the droplets was then passed to a CCN spectrometer, which measured the critical supersaturation (S(sub c)) spectrum of the droplet nuclei. The measured S(sub c) spectra of the droplet nuclei were compared with the S(sub c) spectra of ambient aerosol particles in order to identify which CCN were actually incorporated into droplets and to determine when mixing processes were active at different cloud levels. The droplet nuclei nearly always exhibited lower median S(sub c)'s than the ambient aerosol, as expected since droplets nucleate perferentially on particles with lower critical supersaturations. Critical supersaturation spectra from nuclei of droplets near cloud base were similar to those predicted for cloud regions formed adiabatically, but spectra of droplet nuclei from middle cloud levels showed some evidence that mixing had occurred. Near cloud top, the greatest variation in the spectra of the droplet nuclei was observed, and nuclei with high S(sub c)'s were sometimes present even within relatively large droplets. This suggests that the extent of mixing increases with height in cumulus clouds and that inhomogeneous mixing may be important near cloud top. These promising initial results suggest improvements to the experimental technique that will permit more quantitative results in future experiments.

Twohy, Cynthia H.↗
NASA NTRS1982

Applications of stereoscopic height computations from dual geosynchronous satellite data/joint NASA-Japan stereo project

Stereoscopic heights of the top of an Oklahoma thunderstorm were computed, finding that high cloud tops are not always characterized by very cold IR temperature. The identical method was also applied to the computation of stereo heights based on GOES West and GMS stereo pairs obtained under the NASA-JAPAN cooperative program. It was found that stereo techniques are extremely useful in understanding the structure of thunderstorms in the United States, as well as that of hurricanes over the South Pacific.

Fujita, T. T.↗
NASA NTRS1999

ISCCP Cloud Properties Associated with Standard Cloud Types Identified in Individual Surface Observations

Individual surface weather observations from land stations and ships are compared with individual cloud retrievals of the International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project (ISCCP), Stage C1, for an 8-year period (1983-1991) to relate cloud optical thicknesses and cloud-top pressures obtained from satellite data to the standard cloud types reported in visual observations from the surface. Each surface report is matched to the corresponding ISCCP-C1 report for the time of observation for the 280x280-km grid-box containing that observation. Classes of the surface reports are identified in which a particular cloud type was reported present, either alone or in combination with other clouds. For each class, cloud amounts from both surface and C1 data, base heights from surface data, and the frequency-distributions of cloud-top pressure (p(sub c) and optical thickness (tau) from C1 data are averaged over 15-degree latitude zones, for land and ocean separately, for 3-month seasons. The frequency distribution of p(sub c) and tau is plotted for each of the surface-defined cloud types occurring both alone and with other clouds. The average cloud-top pressures within a grid-box do not always correspond well with values expected for a reported cloud type, particularly for the higher clouds Ci, Ac, and Cb. In many cases this is because the satellites also detect clouds within the grid-box that are outside the field of view of the surface observer. The highest average cloud tops are found for the most extensive cloud type, Ns, averaging 7 km globally and reaching 9 km in the ITCZ. Ns also has the greatest average retrieved optical thickness, tau approximately equal 20. Cumulonimbus clouds may actually attain far greater heights and depths, but do not fill the grid-box. The tau-p(sub c) distributions show features that distinguish the high, middle, and low clouds reported by the surface observers. However, the distribution patterns for the individual low cloud types (Cu, Sc, St) occurring alone overlap to such an extent that it is not possible to distinguish these cloud types from each other on the basis of tau-p(sub c) values alone. Other cloud types whose tau-p(sub c) distributions are indistinguishable are Cb, Ns, and thick As. However, the tau-p(sub c) distribution patterns for the different low cloud types are nevertheless distinguishable when all occurrences of a low cloud type are included, indicating that the different low types differ in their probabilities of co-occurrence with middle and high clouds.

Hahn, Carole J.↗
NASA NTRS1984

Thunderstorm cloud top dynamics as inferred from satellite observations and models

Satellite observations of convective towers penetrating the tropopause are summarized. Three classes of thunderstorm cloud tops including storm tops that have a monotonic temperature-height pattern with the highest point being the coldest point (class 1), tops that have a colocated cold and high point with the warm point on the downward slope to the rear of the highest point (class 2), and tops in which the cold point is offset upwind from the high point, with a cold-warm couplet straddling the convective cloud top (class 3), are described. A one-dimensional cloud parcel model applied in the overshooting region is used to explore the causes of the storm top's unique temperature/height structures.

Adler, R. F.↗
NASA NTRS1981

Sensitivity analysis of upwelling thermal radiance in presence of clouds

Total upwelling radiance at the top of the atmosphere is evaluated theoretically in the presence of clouds. The influence of cloud heights, thicknesses and different cloud covers on the upwelling radiance is also investigated. The characteristics of the two cloud types considered in this study closely correspond to altocumulus and cirrus with the cloud emissivity as a function of its liquid water (or ice) content. For calculation of the integrated transmittance of atmospheric gases such as, H2O, CO2, O3, and N2O, the Quasi Random Band (QRB) model approach is adopted. Results are obtained in three different spectral ranges and are compared with the clearsky radiance results. It is found that the difference between the clearsky and cloudy radiance increases with increasing cloud height and liquid water content. This difference also decreases as the surface temperature approaches the value of the cloud top temperature.

Subramanian, S. V.↗
NASA NTRS1984

A model for the estimation of the surface fluxes of momentum, heat and moisture of the cloud topped marine atmospheric boundary layer from satellite measurable parameters

A model is developed for the estimation of the surface fluxes of momentum, heat, and moisture of the cloud topped marine atmospheric boundary layer by use of satellite remotely sensed parameters. The parameters chosen for the problem are the integrated liquid water content, q sub li, the integrated water vapor content, q sub vi, the cloud top temperature, and either a measure of the 10 meter neutral wind speed or the friction velocity at the surface. Under the assumption of a horizontally homogeneous, well-mixed boundary layer, the model calculates the equivalent potential temperature and total water profiles of the boundary layer along with the boundary layer height from inputs of q sub li, q sub vi, and cloud top temperature. These values, along with the 10m neutral wind speed or friction velocity and the sea surface temperature are then used to estimate the surface fluxes. The development of a scheme to parameterize the integrated water vapor outside of the boundary layer for the cases of cold air outbreak and California coastal stratus is presented.

Allison, D. E.↗