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DOE OSTI2021

Midwest Nuclear-based Net-Zero Carbon Steelmaking Demonstration

Globally, the iron and steel industry accounts for around a quarter of GHG emissions from the manufacturing sector , which is about 7% of the 33 gigatonnes (Gt) of global CO 2 emissions . Thus, globally, the steel industry is a 2-3 Gt CO 2 per year emissions challenge. The steel industry is important to the U.S. economy with output equal to $0.5 trillion and domestic production capacity is critical to national defense, infrastructure, energy production, and transportation. President Biden’s executive order on climate identifies actions and policies to put the Nation on a path to achieve net-zero carbon emissions, economy-wide, by no later than 2050. To achieve this, deep carbon reductions in the power, transportation, buildings and capital-intensive industrial manufacturing segments such as steel, cement and chemicals need to be addressed. In its recent “Accelerating Decarbonization of the U.S. Energy System” report , the National Academy of Sciences (NAS) stated that, “while technology exists to decarbonize all parts of the energy system, some sectors remain at precommercial or first-of-a-kind demonstration stages and require significant improvement in cost and performance to become commercially viable.” The NAS goes on to state that these hard to decarbonize sectors include “aviation, shipping, and industrial subsectors such as steel, cement, and chemicals manufacturing .” The Administration has proposed a timeline to decarbonize energy, transportation and then industry and manufacturing. From a life-cycle approach, decarbonizing steel and other large industrial inputs are necessary to decarbonize transformations in energy and transportation. DOE’s TRI-Lab Consortium’s Integrated Energy Systems (IES) program is a collaboration amongst DOE’s three applied energy laboratories: the National Energy Technology Laboratory; National Renewable Energy Laboratory and Idaho National Laboratory. The IES approach looks at more tightly integrating low-carbon nuclear energy, renewable electricity, energy storage, load/demand balancing, and biomass (including plastics and other wastes) with one or more industrial processes that utilize heat and/or power from these clean and waste energy sources to produce a low-carbon commodity-scale product.

08 HYDROGEN↗

DOE OSTI2025

Techno-economic design of a linear Fresnel reflector for industrial process heat

A techno-economic model of a Concentrating Solar Thermal (CST) system using a Linear Fresnel Reflector (LFR) has been developed. LFRs can deliver process heat suitable for a range of industries, including food and beverage production. This model uses an adaptive algorithm to calculate the optimal secondary reflector shape given the geometry and optical properties of the rest of the system. A ray-tracing program is used to calculate optical efficiency over a wide range of longitudinal and transversal incidence angles and subsequently evaluate the annual efficiency at a given geographical location. A specific LFR design developed by Hyperlight Energy was modelled, and this industrial partner provided a detailed cost breakdown which was used as the basis of an economic model. Combining the technical and economic data facilitates the calculation of the Levelized Cost of Heat (LCOH). The influence of a number of parameters on the annual efficiency and LCOH is explored; notable parameters include the absorber height, the number, width, and spacing of the primary mirrors, the aim point, and the secondary reflector shape and width. By identifying an optimal combination of these parameters, we reduce the LCOH of the industry partner’s system design by 9.2%, from 14.4 $\$/MWh_{th}$ to 13.0 $\$/MWh_{th}$. In comparison, the LCOH of a natural gas boiler delivering the same annual quantity of heat is 29 $\$/MWh_{th}$, which indicates that LFRs can be a competitive heat source for industrial processes.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2025

Sensitivity-based voltage constraints for optimal power flow in low-voltage distribution feeders

The optimal power flow (OPF) problem for distribution systems can include network details down to the low-voltage (LV) points of interconnection of individual customers. This paper addresses the implementation of voltage magnitude constraints, and sets forth a practicable approach for capturing the effects on voltage from the switching behavior of loads (e.g., heat pumps, air conditioners, water heaters, or pool pumps) and from the variability of renewable generation (e.g., rooftop solar). The proposed method adjusts the OPF voltage constraints based on forecasts of load and generation upper and lower bounds, in conjunction with sensitivity factors derived from the power flow equations. An illustrative OPF formulation is also provided, which incorporates transformer models that include core loss. We demonstrate that accurate modeling of these LV network components is critical to avoid voltage violations at customer points of interconnection. Furthermore, the ideas are validated through numerical case studies on a realistic distribution feeder.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗

DOE OSTI2022

Designing for Zero Energy and Zero Carbon on a Multi-Building Scale Using URBANopt: Preprint

Groundbreaking efforts are necessary to mitigate contributors increasing impacts of climate change. In parallel to inventing pioneering clean energy technologies it is even more fundamental to rethink designing energy systems within a singular facility and collectively to function as a district. Facilities should not be continuously passive by just consuming; there is a need to shift to perform more dynamically. Designing for zero energy and zero carbon on a multi-building scale can uncover opportunities for building energy efficiency, decarbonization, demand flexibility, and resiliency that are not accessible at an individual building scale. This approach can be challenging without innovative tools to evaluate the multitude of possibilities. As an investigated result, we highlight the use of a campus-scale energy modeling platform - URBANopt™ - for the expansion of the National Renewable Energy Laboratory's (NREL's) South Table Mountain campus in Golden, Colorado. Programmatic growth included the design of three new all-electric, zero-energy, and zero-carbon, mixed used buildings (a combination of research laboratories and office space). This investigation is critical to NREL reaching net-zero emissions for its operational footprint, which will occur in phases over the next decade. Leveraging URBANopt's capabilities, we evaluate 1) high-performance building energy efficiency and decarbonization measures, 2) 4th generation district heating and cooling (4th GDHC) systems, 3) optimized onsite generation and energy storage assets that meet zero-energy and zero-carbon targets at minimum life-cycle costs, and 4) cost-optimal distributed energy technology mixes, dispatch strategies, and associated capacities that increase resiliency to grid outages. This work demonstrates the use and capabilities of URBANopt through a real-world case study on a multi-building scale.

community energy model↗

DOE OSTI2023

Integration of a Smart Outlet-Based Plug Load Management System with a Building Automation System

The growth of and reliance on renewable energy necessitate a multi-pronged approach to achieve grid reliability and economics. As they represent a notable portion of U.S. energy consumption, commercial buildings must play an active role in this effort. Conserving energy and responding to grid conditions through demand flexibility can be achieved through the integration of major building systems. Integration of plug and process loads with lighting and heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems maximizes the effectiveness of integrated building energy management. In this research, we demonstrate the integration of smart outlets into a building automation system. We cover the installation process as well as the architecture required for smart outlets to communicate data to the building automation system and to receive commands back. After recording power measurements for one week as a baseline, we configured the building automation system to turn the smart outlets on and off according to a set schedule. This resulted in energy savings of 66% during 1 week on 25 plug loads. This work demonstrates that grid-interactive efficient buildings are achievable through building system integration.

building automation system↗

DOE OSTI2020

Additive Manufacturing of Energy Harvesting Material System for Active Wireless MEMS Sensors

Combustion systems make up a large sum of the world’s yearly energy production despite advances in renewable energy sources. Precise control of pressure and temperature in combustion chambers allows for lower carbon emissions, and overall higher efficiency. Wireless temperature and pressure sensors are critical for the operation of combustion chambers. Energy harvesters have emerged as a viable way to power wireless sensors when heat and mechanical energy are available. Lithium niobate (LNB), barium titanate (BTO), and lead zirconate titanate (PZT) pyroelectric ceramics were studied and fabricated through additive manufacturing (AM) for use as energy harvesting structures in combustion environments. The electric power generation potential of LNB and PZT ceramics was studied by varying the temperature from 50 to 60 °C and by introducing cyclic compression loads of 2000 N amplitude. It was found that thermal energy conversion had the highest output of 500 nW and that combined thermal and mechanical conversion did not increase the harvesting potential because of the competing contributions of both effects. Powder bed and slurry extrusion AM methods were used to fabricate BTO and PZT ceramic structures. Optimization of the powder-based binder jetting method produced BTO ceramics with a relative density of 36.77% a piezoelectric coefficient of 153 pC/N. The density of the ceramics increased up to 56% when increasing the saturation of binder in the powder to because of liquid phase sintering. Finally, PZT structures were manufactured through AM and fin features were added to the design to enhance the heat transfer along the material. The harvested power density of the flat samples was 3.643 μW/cm 3 and of the finned samples was 3.034 μW/cm3. This research paves the ways for the development of self-powered wireless sensors in critical areas of operation such as combustion.

01 COAL, LIGNITE, AND PEAT↗

DOE OSTI2022

Zero carbon solid-state rechargeable redox fuel for long duration and seasonal storage

Here, this work presents a unique thermochemical process for charging magnesium-manganese-oxide-based solid-state rechargeable redox fuel. High-temperature heating of the processing furnace can be driven by either renewable electricity or concentrated solar power. The simple recyclable fuel charging concept is based on a tubular falling bed reactor with countercurrent oxygen-depleted gas flow for complete heat recuperation. The main focus of this work is achieving solid flowability at high temperatures (1,450°C) and extracting chemically charged solid at ambient temperature with minimal energy loss. The operation strategies described in this work have enabled consistent magnesium-manganese-oxide particle flow up to 1,450°C. The measured extent of the thermal reduction reaction after cooling the particles is more than 90% of the fully reduced state at equilibrium. The thermal-to-chemical efficiency and overall system efficiency are 96% and 35% respectively, which are the highest reported for thermochemical fuels to date.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗

DOE OSTI2020

H2@Scale Concept Hydrogen Demand and Resources

The H2@Scale concept involves hydrogen as an energy intermediate. Hydrogen can be produced from various conventional and renewable energy sources including as a responsive load on the electric grid. Hydrogen has many current applications and many more potential applications, such as energy for transportation, as a feedstock for synthetic fuels, and to upgrade oil and biomass, heat for industry and buildings, and electricity storage. Owing to its flexibility and fungibility, a hydrogen intermediate could link energy sources that have surplus availability to markets that require energy or chemical feedstocks, benefiting both. This data release provides estimates on hydrogens serviceable consumption potential for possible hydrogen applications and the technical potential for producing hydrogen from various resources. We define the technical potential as the resource potential constrained by real-world geography and system performance, but not by economics.

Array↗

DOE OSTI2025

Exploring Micro-Environmental Conditions of Urban Agrivoltaics: Advancing Sustainable Green Spaces and Agriculture in Temperate Cities

Agrivoltaics, the integrated land use combining renewable energy production and agriculture, can potentially address key challenges faced by urban communities, including limited access to vacant land, fresh produce, and electricity. However, urban agrivoltaics has rarely been considered a viable solution, primarily due to a lack of experimental systems demonstrating the functionality of urban food production or green spaces alongside solar energy production. To evaluate the potential of solar photovoltaics to help mitigate heat stress on urban agriculture and green spaces in a temperate climate, we examined the microclimatic changes introduced by an urban agrivoltaics system (UrAV) when combined with vegetable crops and turfgrass, respectively. Accordingly, we installed an experimental setup instrumented with environmental sensors to compare full-sun conditions with those of an agrivoltaics system designed for urban environments. We found minimal differences for both land cover types between the control and agrivoltaics sites in air and soil temperature. However, during periods of intensified summer heat, temperatures beneath the panels cooled due to reductions in wind speed and relative humidity, which impeded the movement of hot, moist air and reduced reference evapotranspiration. Further, soil moisture in UrAV was highly spatially heterogeneous, influenced by the layout of the photovoltaic panels and their support structure, which redistributed rainfall and controlled where solar radiation could penetrate and drive evapotranspiration. Overall, our results suggest that PV-induced environmental changes in temperate climates are compatible with cultivating turfgrass or appropriate crops. These findings can help planners and designers integrate agrivoltaics into community gardens, farms, and green spaces in temperate cities.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2020

Empowering Energy Efficiency in Existing Big-Box Retail/Grocery Stores (Final Optimization Report)

The Center for Sustainable Energy (CSE), in partnership with the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), TRC Energy Services, P2S Engineering Inc, Walmart, and five innovative technology providers, are to demonstrate the impact of an integrated suite of pre-commercial energy efficiency (EE) technologies in a large, existing, retail building located within an inland disadvantaged community. Proposed technology packages include three categories of advanced EE solutions: heating, ventilating, air-conditioning, and refrigerating (HVAC/R); lighting; and integrated system and building level controls. The project is designed to impact Walmart’s future store specifications, which can be replicated and deployed in other buildings across California with similar end-use and system characteristics. The following lists the technologies considered for this project: DualCool (HVAC evaporative cooling); Software Motor Company (SMC) (HVAC and refrigeration fan motor); I2S: DC LED lighting; LocBit: building energy management and optimization; Saya: water monitoring.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗

DOE OSTI2025

REDOTHERM: a thermodynamic modeling framework for redox-based thermochemical processes

Two-step thermochemical redox cycles are being developed as a potential pathway for the production of hydrogen and syngas. While there are many possible reactor and system configurations, moving oxide systems are considered promising in terms of the redox thermodynamics, due to the potential implementation of a countercurrent system that can achieve higher performance compared to other configurations. There is a lack of a robust thermodynamic modeling framework in the field, with multiple models incorporating incorrect thermodynamic assumptions that violate the second law of thermodynamics. We present in this work REDOTHERM, an open-source system model for moving oxides that incorporates the correct thermodynamic limits, as well as various options for the system auxiliary units including product separation, heat recovery, and oxygen removal. The model is agnostic to the energy source, and could be used for solar thermal or other configurations. We highlight the uses of this model, presenting some of the tradeoffs and challenges in redox-active material selection and how they affect the entire thermochemical hydrogen production process. This model could be easily adapted and used for material exploration, system/reactor design, and technoeconomic analysis.

08 HYDROGEN↗

DOE OSTI2023

System and operation for thermochemical renewable energy storage

Systems and methods for energy storage and energy recovery are provided. An electrical-to-electrical energy storage system includes a thermochemical energy storage device, a blower, a compressor, a turbine, and an electrical generator. The TCES device includes a vessel, a porous bed, and a heater. The porous bed is disposed within an interior volume of the vessel. The porous bed comprises a reactive material. The reactive material is configured to release oxygen upon being heated to a reduction temperature, and generate heat when exposed to oxygen. The heater is in thermal contact with the reactive material. The blower is configured to remove oxygen from the interior volume. The compressor is configured to flow oxygen into the interior volume. The turbine is configured to receive a heated, oxygen-depleted gas from the interior volume. The generator is configured to be powered by the turbine to generate electricity.

Klausner, James F.↗

DOE OSTI2024

Thermochemical renewable energy storage

Klausner, James F.↗

DOE OSTI2023

An evaluation of the demand response potential of integrated dynamic window and HVAC systems

Demand response (DR) increases the flexibility and reliability of the electricity grid as use of intermittent renewable energy sources increases. HVAC and envelope DR measures present the largest aggregate energy and peak demand savings potential of all commercial building end uses because their net demand savings occur during critical peak demand periods. Controllable envelope measures include switchable electrochromic windows, operable window attachments such as outdoor louvers, roller shades, and awnings, as well as other innovative facade technologies that can modulate both solar heat gain and daylight admission over a broad solar-optical range. This study evaluated the technical potential of DR-enabled dynamic windows to reduce critical peak demand for a prototypical medium office building situated in all 16 U.S. climates. Model predictive control (MPC) algorithms were designed to minimize electricity cost in daylit perimeter office zones through control of an electrochromic window with and without HVAC thermostat setpoint control. Conventional and time-of-use rates were used to shape the degree of DR. Median annual peak demand savings with window and thermostat control across all climate zones were 24.3 kW (4.4 W/m 2 ) per building or 15.9 W/m 2 for non-north perimeter zones. Resource adequacy at the whole building level was estimated to be 13.1 to 43.4 $/kW per year over the 30-year life of the installation. Co-benefits were increased energy efficiency, and reduced electricity cost and emissions. Visual and thermal comfort requirements were met at all times. Dynamic facades controlled by MPC have substantial technical potential for DR across all U.S. climates and warrant serious consideration for inclusion in DR portfolios.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗

DOE OSTI2023

Assessing Low-Temperature Geothermal Play Types: Relevant Data and Play Fairway Analysis Methods

This data catalog contains information on low temperature geothermal play types. The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Geothermal Technologies Office (GTO) supports the Geothermal Heating and Cooling Geospatial Datasets and Analysis project, conducted by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL). This project is part of a broader effort to demonstrate the multifaceted value of integrating geothermal power and geothermal heating and cooling technologies into national decarbonization strategies and community energy plans. There is a need to establish baseline low-temperature geothermal resource data sets and evaluate methods for deploying these technologies. This project aims to reduce exploration risk of low temperature geothermal systems by collecting baseline datasets that can be used for Play Fairway Analysis methodologies. This data catalog contains links to publicly available datasets from different sources that can be relevant for the low temperature geothermal systems. This submission contains data catalogs for Alaska, Hawaii, and the Conterminous United States, as well as a technical report on the methods used to classify and asses the geothermal play types.

15 GEOTHERMAL ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2022

Converter-Interfaced CHP Plant for Improved Grid-Integration, Flexibility and Resiliency

GE Research and its partner GE Renewables have proposed the use of an interface converter solution to increase the penetration of small to medium-sized CHP (1MWe to 20MWe) into distribution grids and improve their flexibility and grid support capability. Indeed, the proposed interface converter solution thanks to presence of the grid-ready inverter, allows to streamline the compliance to grid codes requirements, reduce the interconnection delays and costs and ultimately one of the main barriers for CHP adoption by commercial and industrial facilities. An additional benefit provided by the interface converter is the use of the grid-ready inverter for reactive power which eliminates the need of sizing the generator for that capability. These two benefits highly favor the economic feasibility of converter-interfaced CHP. Five user cases, each in one of the leading U.S states for CHP potential reported by the DOE in its estimation of the U.S Technical Potential of CHP, were selected to compare the economic performances of converter-interfaced CHP as compared with directly-coupled. They include a college campus in California, a hospital in New York, a water reclamation plant in Texas, a hotel in Minnesota, and a large office building in Pennsylvania. Results showed that, the presence of the interface converter allows to increase the return on investment (ROI) by 0.5 to 2 percentage points in most of the cases (4 of 5). Indeed, the interface converter by shortening the interconnection process allows to accelerate revenues while reducing interconnection costs. Added to the reduced cost of the required generator these savings trade favorably the capital cost of the converter. The analysis also showed that the profitability of the converter-interfaced CHP is highly sensitive to the energy price, interconnection delay, and converter cost. However, it appears that if the interface converter can shorten the interconnection process by at least 6 months, adopting this solution will be more economically viable than directly-coupled configuration in almost all the +23,000 sites of the U.S Technical Potential CHP. The evaluation of the benefits of a converter-interfaced CHP also showed that it enables higher ROI when coupled with other distributed energy resources (DER) such as battery energy systems (BESS) or solar photovoltaic (PV). Indeed, in those scenario, the grid-ready inverter included in the interface converter eliminates the need of separate inverters if DC-coupling is used. On the technical performance, it has been verified that the presence of the interface converter allows to reduce by 70% to 80% the CHP short-circuit contribution to grid faults. This not only reduces the mechanical and thermal stresses exposed to the CHP electrical components but also increases the grid hosting capacity which ultimately enables higher penetrations CHP. Another key benefit of the interface converter validated with hardware-in-the-loop simulations and testing is its superior capability for reactive power support. Indeed, using a power hardware testbed with two +700kW inverters configured in back-to-back, a microgrid controller and actual facilities loads it was demonstrated that the presence of the interface converter can help maintain a power factor near ~1 or regulate the voltage to ~1.0pu at the point of common coupling. This benefit can be highly valuable if in the future, due to higher penetration of renewable distributed energy resources (DER), utilities start billing demand charge based on kVA instead of kW as currently. It was also validated that converter-interfaced CHP can dispatch heat and power commands and seamlessly switch between the two modes while consistently controlling the power factor or voltage at PCC. Indeed, the power hardware testing showed that grid-connected converter-interfaced CHP can follow either the power or heat demand while maintaining a unity power factor at converter output. This research proved that the adoption of an interface converter as the solution for interconnection of CHP system into the distribution grid can greatly improve the economic feasibility of small to medium-sized CHP as well as the plant power quality, flexibility and resiliency. Additionally, it allows increased penetrations of CHP into the distribution grid, extends their grid support capability, and facilitates the integration of BESS and PV DER by streamlining their collocation within the same facilities. This ultimately provides an opportunity for commercial and small industrial facilities in the U.S to accelerate their energy transition thanks to the high energy efficiency of CHP systems and its reliable, flexible, and resilient microgrid operation when interconnected with an interface converter.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗

DOE OSTI2021

Carbon‐Neutral Pathways for the United States

Abstract The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5°C points to the need for carbon neutrality by mid‐century. Achieving this in the United States in only 30 years will be challenging, and practical pathways detailing the technologies, infrastructure, costs, and tradeoffs involved are needed. Modeling the entire U.S. energy and industrial system with new analysis tools that capture synergies not represented in sector‐specific or integrated assessment models, we created multiple pathways to net zero and net negative CO 2 emissions by 2050. They met all forecast U.S. energy needs at a net cost of 0.2–1.2% of GDP in 2050, using only commercial or near‐commercial technologies, and requiring no early retirement of existing infrastructure. Pathways with constraints on consumer behavior, land use, biomass use, and technology choices (e.g., no nuclear) met the target but at higher cost. All pathways employed four basic strategies: energy efficiency, decarbonized electricity, electrification, and carbon capture. Least‐cost pathways were based on >80% wind and solar electricity plus thermal generation for reliability. A 100% renewable primary energy system was feasible but had higher cost and land use. We found multiple feasible options for supplying low‐carbon fuels for non‐electrifiable end uses in industry, freight, and aviation, which were not required in bulk until after 2035. In the next decade, the actions required in all pathways were similar: expand renewable capacity 3.5 fold, retire coal, maintain existing gas generating capacity, and increase electric vehicle and heat pump sales to >50% of market share. This study provides a playbook for carbon neutrality policy with concrete near‐term priorities.

Williams, James H.↗

DOE OSTI2024

FY2023 NSTTF Annual Report

The National Solar Thermal Test Facility (NSTTF) is a DOE Core Capability and Technology Deployment Center located in Albuquerque, NM. It is operated by Sandia National Laboratories (Sandia) for the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE). The NSTTF is the only multi-mission, multi-use, multi-story test facility of its type in the United States. The NSTTF was founded in 1978 and began testing with high heat flux that same year. Over the past 45 years, the NSTTF has been at the forefront of the research, design, fabrication, and testing of many of the critical Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) technologies. These technologies have allowed costs to be dramatically reduced from over $\$ $0.40 /kWh to $\$$0.12 /kWh since the conception of this renewable energy technology. The NSTTF has worked to make the Solar Energy Generating Systems (SEGS) parabolic trough plants successful, while also working with the Solar One and Solar Two facilities for successful implementation. Over the four decades since its founding, the mission of the NSTTF has grown to include new receiver technologies, like our generation 3 falling particle system (G3P3 Tower), optical metrology techniques like SOFAST, molten salt testing, thermal energy storage, solar thermal chemistry, and more. We continue to expand our capabilities in pursuit of the DOE SETO mission and the DOE SunShot 2030 goals: unsubsidized LCOE of $\$$0.05/kWh for CSP that includes 12 or more hours of thermal energy storage. To support both the DOE SETO mission and support the CSP sector as a whole, we are working to develop our operations and maintenance framework to provide a world class testing facility in support of our technological achievements. To accomplish both of these missions, the NSTTF draws on the decades of experience and expertise of our staff along with the world-class facilities at Sandia National Laboratories to further the science of concentrated solar thermal technologies in diverse applications. We remain a trusted partner for high-quality and impactful research in both fundamental and applied arenas. We are able to provide our partners with both one-of-a-kind testing platforms as well as world-class analytics.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗