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NASA NTRS2007

Large-Scale Cryogen Systems and Test Facilities

NASA has completed initial construction and verification testing of the Integrated Systems Test Facility (ISTF) Cryogenic Testbed. The ISTF is located at Complex 20 at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, Florida. The remote and secure location is ideally suited for the following functions: (1) development testing of advanced cryogenic component technologies, (2) development testing of concepts and processes for entire ground support systems designed for servicing large launch vehicles, and (3) commercial sector testing of cryogenic- and energy-related products and systems. The ISTF Cryogenic Testbed consists of modular fluid distribution piping and storage tanks for liquid oxygen/nitrogen (56,000 gal) and liquid hydrogen (66,000 gal). Storage tanks for liquid methane (41,000 gal) and Rocket Propellant 1 (37,000 gal) are also specified for the facility. A state-of-the-art blast proof test command and control center provides capability for remote operation, video surveillance, and data recording for all test areas.

Johnson, R. G.↗

NASA NTRS2007

Cost-Efficient Storage of Cryogens

NASA's cryogenic infrastructure that supports launch vehicle operations and propulsion testing is reaching an age where major refurbishment will soon be required. Key elements of this infrastructure are the large double-walled cryogenic storage tanks used for both space vehicle launch operations and rocket propulsion testing at the various NASA field centers. Perlite powder has historically been the insulation material of choice for these large storage tank applications. New bulk-fill insulation materials, including glass bubbles and aerogel beads, have been shown to provide improved thermal and mechanical performance. A research testing program was conducted to investigate the thermal performance benefits as well as to identify operational considerations and associated risks associated with the application of these new materials in large cryogenic storage tanks. The program was divided into three main areas: material testing (thermal conductivity and physical characterization), tank demonstration testing (liquid nitrogen and liquid hydrogen), and system studies (thermal modeling, economic analysis, and insulation changeout). The results of this research work show that more energy-efficient insulation solutions are possible for large-scale cryogenic storage tanks worldwide and summarize the operational requirements that should be considered for these applications.

Fesmire, J. E.↗

NASA NTRS2012

Verilog-A Device Models for Cryogenic Temperature Operation of Bulk Silicon CMOS Devices

Verilog-A based cryogenic bulk CMOS (complementary metal oxide semiconductor) compact models are built for state-of-the-art silicon CMOS processes. These models accurately predict device operation at cryogenic temperatures down to 4 K. The models are compatible with commercial circuit simulators. The models extend the standard BSIM4 [Berkeley Short-channel IGFET (insulated-gate field-effect transistor ) Model] type compact models by re-parameterizing existing equations, as well as adding new equations that capture the physics of device operation at cryogenic temperatures. These models will allow circuit designers to create optimized, reliable, and robust circuits operating at cryogenic temperatures.

Akturk, Akin↗

NASA NTRS2011

Issues of Long-Term Cryogenic Propellant Storage in Microgravity

Modern multi-layer insulation (MLI) allows to sharply reduce the heat leak into cryogenic propellant storage tanks through the tank surface and, as a consequence, significantly extend the storage duration. In this situation the MLI penetrations, such as support struts, feed lines, etc., become one of the most significant challenges of the tanks heat management. This problem is especially acute for liquid hydrogen (LH2) storage, since currently no efficient cryocoolers exist that operate at very low LH2 temperatures (20K). Even small heat leaks under microgravity conditions and over the period of many months give rise to a complex slowly-developing, large-scale spatiotemporal physical phenomena in a multi-phase liquid-vapor mixture. These phenomena are not well-understood nor can be easily controlled. They can be of a potentially hazardous nature for long-term on-orbital cryogenic torage, propellant loading, tank chilldown, engine restart, and other in-space cryogenic fluid management operations. To support the engineering design solutions that would mitigate these effects a detailed physics-based analysis of heat transfer, vapor bubble formation, growth, motion, coalescence and collapse is required in the presence of stirring jets of different configurations and passive cooling devices such as MLI, thermodynamic vent system, and vapor-cooled shield. To develop physics-based models and correlations reliable for microgravity conditions and long-time scales there is a need for new fundamental data to be collected from on-orbit cryogenic storage experiments. Our report discusses some of these physical phenomena and the design requirements and future studies necessary for their mitigation. Special attention is payed to the phenomena occurring near MLI penetrations.

Muratov, C. B.↗

NASA NTRS2012

JWST's Cryogenic Position Metrology System

The James Webb Space Telescope will undergo a full system test in the cryogenic vacuum chamber A at the Johnson Spaceflight Center in order to verify the overall performance of the combined telescope and instrument suite. This will be the largest and most extensive cryogenic test ever undertaken. Early in the test system development, it was determined that precise position measurements of the overall hardware would enhance the test results. Various concepts were considered before selecting photogrammetry for this metrology. Photogrammetry has been used in space systems for decades, however cryogenic use combined with the size and the optical/thermal sensitivity of JWST creates a unique set of implementation challenges. This paper provides an overview of the JWST photogrammetric system and mitigation strategies for three key engineering design challenges: 1) the thermal design of the viewing windows to prevent excessive heat leak and stray light to the test article 2) cost effective motors and mechanisms to provide the angle diversity required, and 3) camera-flash life and reliability sufficient for inaccessible use during the number and duration of the cryogenic tests.

Whitman, Tony L.↗

NASA NTRS2010

Thermographic Methods of Detecting Insulation Voids in Large Cryogenic Tanks

Four very large (900Kgal) cryogenic liquid hydrogen and oxygen storage tanks at Kennedy Space Center's LC-39 launch pads were constructed in 1965 to support the Apollo/Saturn V Program and continue to support the Space Shuttle Program. These double-walled spherical tanks with powdered insulation in the annular region, have received minimal refurbishment or even inspection over the years. Intrusively inspecting these tanks would mean a significant down time to the program as the cryogenic liquid and the perlite insulation would have to be removed which would be a significant task and long-term schedule disruption. A study of the tanks was performed to determine the extent to which performance and structural information could be revealed without intrusive inspection. Thermal images of the tanks were taken over a variety of environmental conditions to determine the best conditions under which to compare and use thermography as a health monitoring technique as the tanks continue to age. The settling and subsequent compaction of insulation is a serious concern for cryogenic tanks. Comparison of images from the tanks reveals significant variations in the insulation in the annual regions and point to the use of thermography as a way to monitor for insulation migration and possible compaction. These measurements, when combined with mathematical models of historical boil-off data provide key insight to the condition of the vessels. Acceptance testing methods for new tanks, before they are filled with cryogenic commodity (and thereby thermally cycled), are needed and we explore how thermography can be used to accomplish this.

Arens, Ellen↗

NASA NTRS2007

Robust Multilayer Insulation for Cryogenic Systems

New requirements for thermal insulation include robust Multilayer insulation (MU) systems that work for a range of environments from high vacuum to no vacuum. Improved MLI systems must be simple to install and maintain while meeting the life-cycle cost and thermal performance objectives. Performance of actual MLI systems has been previously shown to be much worse than ideal MLI. Spacecraft that must contain cryogens for both lunar service (high vacuum) and ground launch operations (no vacuum) are planned. Future cryogenic spacecraft for the soft vacuum environment of Mars are also envisioned. Industry products using robust MLI can benefit from improved cost-efficiency and system safety. Novel materials have been developed to operate as excellent thermal insulators at vacuum levels that are much less stringent than the absolute high vacuum requirement of current MLI systems. One such robust system, Layered Composite Insulation (LCI), has been developed by the Cryogenics Test Laboratory at NASA Kennedy Space Center. The experimental testing and development of LCI is the focus of this paper. LCI thermal performance under cryogenic conditions is shown to be six times better than MLI at soft vacuum and similar to MLI at high vacuum. The experimental apparent thermal conductivity (k-value) and heat flux data for LCI systems are compared with other MLI systems.

Fesmire, J. E.↗

NASA NTRS2013

Cryogenics Testbed Laboratory Flange Baseline Configuration

As an intern at Kennedy Space Center (KSC), I was involved in research for the Fluids and Propulsion Division of the NASA Engineering (NE) Directorate. I was immersed in the Integrated Ground Operations Demonstration Units (IGODU) project for the majority of my time at KSC, primarily with the Ground Operations Demonstration Unit Liquid Oxygen (GODU L02) branch of IGODU. This project was established to develop advancements in cryogenic systems as a part of KSC's Advanced Exploration Systems (AES) program. The vision of AES is to develop new approaches for human exploration, and operations in and beyond low Earth orbit. Advanced cryogenic systems are crucial to minimize the consumable losses of cryogenic propellants, develop higher performance launch vehicles, and decrease operations cost for future launch programs. During my internship, I conducted a flange torque tracking study that established a baseline configuration for the flanges in the Simulated Propellant Loading System (SPLS) at the KSC Cryogenics Test Laboratory (CTL) - the testing environment for GODU L02.

Acuna, Marie Lei Ysabel D.↗

NASA NTRS2015

Cryogenic Fluid Management Technology Development for Nuclear Thermal Propulsion

The purpose of this paper is to investigate, facilitate a discussion and determine a path forward for technology development of cryogenic fluid management technology that is necessary for long duration deep space missions utilizing nuclear thermal propulsion systems. There are a number of challenges in managing cryogenic liquids that must be addressed before long durations missions into deep space, such as a trip to Mars can be successful. The leakage rate of hydrogen from pressure vessels, seals, lines and valves is a critical factor that must be controlled and minimized. For long duration missions, hydrogen leakage amounts to large increases in hydrogen and therefore vehicle mass. The size of a deep space vehicle, such as a mars transfer vehicle, must be kept small to control cost and the logistics of a multi launch, assembled in orbit vehicle. The boil off control of the cryogenic fluid is an additional obstacle to long duration missions. The boil off caused by heat absorption results in the growth of the propellant needs of the vehicle and therefore vehicle mass. This is a significant problem for a vehicle using nuclear (fission) propulsion systems. Radiation from the engines deposits large quantities of heat into the cryogenic fluid, greatly increasing boil off beyond that caused by environmental heat leakage. Addressing and resolving these challenges is critical to successful long duration space exploration. This paper discusses the state of the technology needed to address these challenges and discuss the path forward needed in technology development.

Taylor, Brian↗

NASA NTRS2015

Computational Fluid Dynamics Based Extraction of Heat Transfer Coefficient in Cryogenic Propellant Tanks

Current reduced-order thermal model for cryogenic propellant tanks is based on correlations built for flat plates collected in the 1950's. The use of these correlations suffers from: inaccurate geometry representation; inaccurate gravity orientation; ambiguous length scale; and lack of detailed validation. The work presented under this task uses the first-principles based Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) technique to compute heat transfer from tank wall to the cryogenic fluids, and extracts and correlates the equivalent heat transfer coefficient to support reduced-order thermal model. The CFD tool was first validated against available experimental data and commonly used correlations for natural convection along a vertically heated wall. Good agreements between the present prediction and experimental data have been found for flows in laminar as well turbulent regimes. The convective heat transfer between tank wall and cryogenic propellant, and that between tank wall and ullage gas were then simulated. The results showed that commonly used heat transfer correlations for either vertical or horizontal plate over predict heat transfer rate for the cryogenic tank, in some cases by as much as one order of magnitude. A characteristic length scale has been defined that can correlate all heat transfer coefficients for different fill levels into a single curve. This curve can be used for the reduced-order heat transfer model analysis.

Yang, H. Q.↗

NASA NTRS2015

CFD Extraction of Heat Transfer Coefficient in Cryogenic Propellant Tanks

Current reduced-order thermal model for cryogenic propellant tanks is based on correlations built for flat plates collected in the 1950's. The use of these correlations suffers from inaccurate geometry representation; inaccurate gravity orientation; ambiguous length scale; and lack of detailed validation. This study uses first-principles based CFD methodology to compute heat transfer from the tank wall to the cryogenic fluids and extracts and correlates the equivalent heat transfer coefficient to support reduced-order thermal model. The CFD tool was first validated against available experimental data and commonly used correlations for natural convection along a vertically heated wall. Good agreements between the present prediction and experimental data have been found for flows in laminar as well turbulent regimes. The convective heat transfer between the tank wall and cryogenic propellant, and that between the tank wall and ullage gas were then simulated. The results showed that the commonly used heat transfer correlations for either vertical or horizontal plate over-predict heat transfer rate for the cryogenic tank, in some cases by as much as one order of magnitude. A characteristic length scale has been defined that can correlate all heat transfer coefficients for different fill levels into a single curve. This curve can be used for the reduced-order heat transfer model analysis.

Yang, H. Q.↗

NASA NTRS2015

Preliminary Thermal Design of Cryogenic Radiation Shielding

Cryogenic Hydrogen Radiation Shielding (CHRS) is the most mass efficient material radiation shielding strategy for human spaceflight beyond low Earth orbit (LEO). Future human space flight, mission beyond LEO could exceed one year in duration. Previous radiation studies showed that in order to protect the astronauts from space radiation with an annual allowable radiation dose less than 500 mSv, 140 kgm2 of polyethylene is necessary. For a typical crew module that is 4 meter in diameter and 8 meter in length. The mass of polyethylene radiation shielding required would be more than 17,500 kg. The same radiation study found that the required hydrogen shielding for the same allowable radiation dose is 40 kgm2, and the mass of hydrogen required would be 5, 000 kg. Cryogenic hydrogen has higher densities and can be stored in relatively small containment vessels. However, the CHRS system needs a sophisticated thermal system which prevents the cryogenic hydrogen from evaporating during the mission. This study designed a cryogenic thermal system that protects the CHRS from hydrogen evaporation for one to up to three year mission. The design also includes a ground based cooling system that can subcool and freeze liquid hydrogen. The final results show that the CHRS with its required thermal protection system is nearly half of the mass of polyethylene radiation shielding.

radiation↗

NASA NTRS2016

James Webb Space Telescope Core 2 Test - Cryogenic Thermal Balance Test of the Observatorys Core Area Thermal Control Hardware

The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), successor to the Hubble Space Telescope, will be the largest astronomical telescope ever sent into space. To observe the very first light of the early universe, JWST requires a large deployed 6.5-meter primary mirror cryogenically cooled to less than 50 Kelvin. Three scientific instruments are further cooled via a large radiator system to less than 40 Kelvin. A fourth scientific instrument is cooled to less than 7 Kelvin using a combination pulse-tube Joule-Thomson mechanical cooler. Passive cryogenic cooling enables the large scale of the telescope which must be highly folded for launch on an Ariane 5 launch vehicle and deployed once on orbit during its journey to the second Earth-Sun Lagrange point. Passive cooling of the observatory is enabled by the deployment of a large tennis court sized five layer Sunshield combined with the use of a network of high efficiency radiators. A high purity aluminum heat strap system connects the three instrument's detector systems to the radiator systems to dissipate less than a single watt of parasitic and instrument dissipated heat. JWST's large scale features, while enabling passive cooling, also prevent the typical flight configuration fully-deployed thermal balance test that is the keystone of most space missions' thermal verification plans. This paper describes the JWST Core 2 Test, which is a cryogenic thermal balance test of a full size, high fidelity engineering model of the Observatory's 'Core' area thermal control hardware. The 'Core' area is the key mechanical and cryogenic interface area between all Observatory elements. The 'Core' area thermal control hardware allows for temperature transition of 300K to approximately 50 K by attenuating heat from the room temperature IEC (instrument electronics) and the Spacecraft Bus. Since the flight hardware is not available for test, the Core 2 test uses high fidelity and flight-like reproductions.

JWST Thermal Core 2 Test↗

NASA NTRS2017

Satellite Testbed for Evaluating Cryogenic-Liquid Behavior in Microgravity

Provided is a testbed for conducting an experiment on a substance in a cryogenic liquid state in a microgravity environment. The testbed includes a frame with rectangular nominal dimensions, and a source section including a supply of the substance to be evaluated in the cryogenic liquid state. An experiment section includes an experiment vessel in fluid communication with the storage section to receive the substance from the storage section and condense the substance into the cryogenic liquid state. A sensor is adapted to sense a property of the substance in the cryogenic liquid state in the experiment vessel as part of the experiment. A bus section includes a controller configured to control delivery of the substance from the storage section to the experiment vessel, and receive property data indicative of the property sensed by the sensor for subsequent evaluation on Earth.

Putman, Philip Travis↗

NASA NTRS2017

Tank System Integrated Model: A Cryogenic Tank Performance Prediction Program

Accurate predictions of the thermodynamic state of the cryogenic propellants, pressurization rate, and performance of pressure control techniques in cryogenic tanks are required for development of cryogenic fluid long-duration storage technology and planning for future space exploration missions. This Technical Memorandum (TM) presents the analytical tool, Tank System Integrated Model (TankSIM), which can be used for modeling pressure control and predicting the behavior of cryogenic propellant for long-term storage for future space missions. Utilizing TankSIM, the following processes can be modeled: tank self-pressurization, boiloff, ullage venting, mixing, and condensation on the tank wall. This TM also includes comparisons of TankSIM program predictions with the test data andexamples of multiphase mission calculations.

Bolshinskiy, L. G.↗

NASA NTRS2017

Assessment of Urban Aerial Taxi with Cryogenic Components under Design Environment for Novel Vertical Lift Vehicles (DELIVER)

Assessing the potential to bring 100 years of aeronautics knowledge to the entrepreneurs desktop to enable a design environment for emerging vertical lift vehicles is one goal for the NASAs Design Environment for Novel Vertical Lift Vehicles (DELIVER). As part of this effort, a system study was performed using a notional, urban aerial taxi system to better understand vehicle requirements along with the tools and methods capability to assess these vehicles and their subsystems using cryogenic cooled components. The baseline was a vertical take-off and landing (VTOL) aircraft, with all-electric propulsion system assuming 15 year technology performance levels and its capability limited to a pilot with one or two people and cargo. Hydrocarbon-fueled hybrid concepts were developed to improve mission capabilities. The hybrid systems resulted in significant improvements in maximum range and number of on demand mobility (ODM) missions that could be completed before refuel or recharge. An important consideration was thermal management, including the choice for air-cooled or cryogenic cooling using liquid natural gas (LNG) fuel. Cryogenic cooling for critical components can have important implications on component performance and size. Thermal loads were also estimated, subsequent effort will be required to verify feasibility for cooling airflow and packaging. LNG cryogenic cooling of selected components further improved vehicle range and reduced thermal loads, but the same concerns for airflow and packaging still need to be addressed. The use of the NASA Design and Analysis of Rotorcraft (NDARC) tool for vehicle sizing and mission analysis appears to be capable of supporting analyses for present and future types of vehicles, missions, propulsion, and energy sources. Further efforts are required to develop verified models for these new types of propulsion and energy sources in the size and use envisioned for these emerging vehicle and mission classes.

systems analysis↗

NASA NTRS2017

Assessment of Urban Aerial Taxi with Cryogenic Components Under Design Environment for Novel Vertical Lift Vehicles (DELIVER)

Assessing the potential to bring 100 years of aeronautics knowledge to the entrepreneurs desktop to enable a design environment for emerging vertical lift vehicles is one goal for the NASA's Design Environment for Novel Vertical Lift Vehicles (DELIVER). As part of this effort, a system study was performed using a notional, urban aerial taxi system to better understand vehicle requirements along with the tools and methods capability to assess these vehicles and their subsystems using cryogenic cooled components. The baseline was a vertical take-off and landing (VTOL) aircraft, with all-electric propulsion system assuming 15 year technology performance levels and its capability limited to a pilot with one or two people and cargo. Hydrocarbon-fueled hybrid concepts were developed to improve mission capabilities. The hybrid systems resulted in significant improvements in maximum range and number of on demand mobility (ODM) missions that could be completed before refuel or recharge. An important consideration was thermal management, including the choice for air-cooled or cryogenic cooling using liquid natural gas (LNG) fuel. Cryogenic cooling for critical components can have important implications on component performance and size. Thermal loads were also estimated, subsequent effort will be required to verify feasibility for cooling airflow and packaging. LNG cryogenic cooling of selected components further improved vehicle range and reduced thermal loads, but the same concerns for airflow and packaging still need to be addressed. The use of the NASA Design and Analysis of Rotorcraft (NDARC) tool for vehicle sizing and mission analysis appears to be capable of supporting analyses for present and future types of vehicles, missions, propulsion, and energy sources. Further efforts are required to develop verified models for these new types of propulsion and energy sources in the size and use envisioned for these emerging vehicle and mission classes.

thermal analysis↗

NASA NTRS2017

Testing Tensile and Shear Epoxy Strength at Cryogenic Temperatures

This paper covers cryogenic, tensile testing and research completed on a number of epoxies used in cryogenic applications. Epoxies are used in many different applications; however, this research focused on the use of epoxy used to bond MLI standoffs to cryogenic storage tanks and the loads imparted to the tank through the MLI. To conduct testing, samples were made from bare stainless steel, aluminum and primed aluminum. Testing involved slowly cooling test samples with liquid nitrogen then applying gradually increasing tensile loads to the epoxy. The testing evaluated the strength and durability of epoxies at cryogenic temperatures and serves as a base for future testing. The results of the tests showed that some epoxies withstood the harsh conditions while others failed. The two epoxies yielding the best results were Masterbond EP29LPSP and Scotch Weld 2216. For all metal surfaces tested, both epoxies had zero failures for up to 11.81 kg of mass.

multilayer insulation↗