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DOE OSTI2022

Impact of Concurrent Solubilization and Fines Migration on Fracture Aperture Growth in Shales during Acidized Brine Injection

Acidic hydraulic fracturing fluid chemically and physically alters shale rock fabric during injection and shut-in, creating a “reaction-altered zone” along the fracture faces. To better characterize the variable thickness and composition of this reaction-altered zone under advective flow, we take a coupled experimental and modeling approach. A fluidic cell, with six fiducial markers, is first fabricated to keep the rock sample in place during the core floods and to allow image alignment of acquired images. Then, we conduct a series of reactive core floods in a clay-rich siliceous Wolfcamp shale sample with 10 wt % carbonate, using a synthetic fracturing fluid under no confining stress and at room temperature. High-resolution computed tomography (CT) scans are periodically conducted to observe the spatial alteration of the fracture network. We then perform scanning electron microscopy (SEM-EDS) on the two orthogonal surfaces (fracture surface and freshly cut profile face) to generate high-resolution elemental maps that show the change in mineralogy, both with distance along a given flow path along a fracture surface and with depth from the fracture surface into the shale matrix. These results are contrasted against a two-dimensional (2D) advection-diffusion reaction model developed previously for batch reactions between shale and synthetic fracturing fluids. The model simulates the geochemical interaction occurring at the fracture/matrix interface and penetrating into the shale matrix during the reactive core flood. Both model and experimental results show that the acidic brine is neutralized during the core flood, corresponding to an increase in fracture aperture as a function of fluid volume injected with the greatest change near the inlet. SEM-EDS scans reveal significant dissolution of carbonates on the fracture surface without pyrite oxidation. The reactive transport model indicates that carbonate depletion into the shale interior should be observable, yet SEM-EDS shows no discernible loss of carbonate in the orthogonal profile face. The combination of these observations suggests an additional fracture evolution mechanism in the reactive system, i.e., fines migration. We show that fines migration enhances the access of fracturing fluid to the matrix resulting in a more pronounced fracture widening. Finally, we conclude that coupled mineral dissolution and fines migration govern fracture aperture growth during acidized brine injection. In this work, we effectively show the underlying risk of relying solely on models that do not include an important (transport) process that can alter the system significantly and propose a combined chemomechanical mechanism for fracture evolution appropriate for this shale mineralogy.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2012

Coanda injection system for axially staged low emission combustors

The low emission combustor includes a combustor housing defining a combustion chamber having a plurality of combustion zones. A liner sleeve is disposed in the combustion housing with a gap formed between the liner sleeve and the combustor housing. A secondary nozzle is disposed along a centerline of the combustion chamber and configured to inject a first fluid comprising air, at least one diluent, fuel, or combinations thereof to a downstream side of a first combustion zone among the plurality of combustion zones. A plurality of primary fuel nozzles is disposed proximate to an upstream side of the combustion chamber and located around the secondary nozzle and configured to inject a second fluid comprising air and fuel to an upstream side of the first combustion zone. The combustor also includes a plurality of tertiary coanda nozzles. Each tertiary coanda nozzle is coupled to a respective dilution hole. The tertiary coanda nozzles are configured to inject a third fluid comprising air, at least one other diluent, fuel, or combinations thereof to one or more remaining combustion zones among the plurality of combustion zones.

42 ENGINEERING↗

DOE OSTI2018

Numerical Simulation Applications in the Design of EGS Collab Experiment 1

The United States Department of Energy, Geothermal Technologies Office (GTO) is funding a collaborative investigation of enhanced geothermal systems (EGS) processes at the meso-scale. This study, referred to as the EGS Collab project, is a unique opportunity for scientists and engineers to investigate the creation of fracture networks and circulation of fluids across those networks under in-situ stress conditions. The EGS Collab project is envisioned to comprise three experiments and the site for the first experiment is on the 4850 Level (4,850 feet below ground surface) in phyllite of the Precambrian Poorman formation, at the Sanford Underground Research Facility, located at the former Homestake Gold Mine, in Lead, South Dakota. Principal objectives of the project are to develop a number of intermediate-scale field sites and to conduct well-controlled in situ experiments focused on rock fracture behavior and permeability enhancement. Data generated during these experiments will be compared against predictions of a suite of computer codes specifically designed to solve problems involving coupled thermal, hydrological, geomechanical, and geochemical processes. Comparisons between experimental and numerical simulation results will provide code developers with direction for improvements and verification of process models, build confidence in the suite of available numerical tools, and ultimately identify critical future development needs for the geothermal modeling community. Moreover, conducting thorough comparisons of models, modelling approaches, measurement approaches and measured data, via the EGS Collab project, will serve to identify techniques that are most likely to succeed at the Frontier Observatory for Research in Geothermal Energy (FORGE), the GTO's flagship EGS research effort. As noted, outcomes from the EGS Collab project experiments will serve as benchmarks for computer code verification, but numerical simulation additionally plays an essential role in designing these meso-scale experiments. This paper describes specific numerical simulations supporting the design of Experiment 1, a field test involving hydraulic stimulation of two fractures from notched sections of the injection borehole and fluid circulation between sub-horizontal injection and production boreholes in each fracture individually and collectively, including the circulation of chilled water. Whereas the mine drift allows for accurate and close placement of monitoring instrumentation to the developed fractures, active ventilation in the drift cooled the rock mass within the experimental volume. Numerical simulations were executed to predict seismic events and magnitudes during stimulation, initial fracture orientations for smooth horizontal wellbores, pressure requirements for fracture initiation from notched wellbores, fracture propagation during stimulation between the injection and production boreholes, tracer travel times between the injection and production boreholes, produced fluid temperatures with chilled water injections, pressure limits on fluid circulation to avoid fracture growth, temperature environment surrounding the 4850 Level drift, and fracture propagation within a stress field altered by drift excavation, ventilation cooling, and dewatering.

15 GEOTHERMAL ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2022

Fluid mixing apparatus using liquid fuel and high- and low-pressure fluid streams

A fluid mixing apparatus includes mixing conduits that extend through a fluid plenum. The fluid plenum, which surrounds a first wall defining a main passage fluidly coupled to a low-pressure fluid source, is surrounded itself by a second wall defining a high-pressure plenum fluidly coupled to a high-pressure fluid source. An insulated tube disposed at the inlet of the first wall delivers a third fluid. The mixing conduits fluidly couple the high-pressure plenum to the main passage, where the high-pressure fluid is mixed with low-pressure fluid and the third fluid. Optionally, the fluid plenum may house a fourth fluid that is injected through injection holes in the mixing conduits. The fluid mixing apparatus may be used to mix one or more fuels with high- and low-pressure air in a gas turbine combustor. Alternately, the fluid mixing apparatus may mix a fluid with high- and low-pressure water streams.

Berry, Joseph Jonathan↗

DOE OSTI2018

Numerical Simulation Applications in the Design of EGS Collab Experiment 1

The United States Department of Energy, Geothermal Technologies Office (GTO) is funding a collaborative investigation of enhanced geothermal systems (EGS) processes at the meso-scale. This study, referred to as the EGS Collab project, is a unique opportunity for scientists and engineers to investigate the creation of fracture networks and circulation of fluids across those networks under in-situ stress conditions. The EGS Collab project is envisioned to comprise three experiments and the site for the first experiment is on the 4850 Level in phyllite of the Precambrian Poorman formation, at the Sanford Underground Research Facility, located at the former Homestake Gold Mine, in Lead, South Dakota. Principal objectives of the project are to develop a number of intermediate-scale field sites and to conduct well-controlled in situ experiments focused on rock fracture behavior and permeability enhancement. Data generated during these experiments will be compared against predictions of a suite of computer codes specifically designed to solve problems involving coupled thermal, hydrological, geomechanical, and geochemical processes. Comparisons between experimental and numerical simulation results will provide code developers with direction for improvements and verification of process models, build confidence in the suite of available numerical tools, and ultimately identify critical future development needs for the geothermal modeling community. Moreover, conducting thorough comparisons of models, modelling approaches, measurement approaches and measured data, via the EGS Collab project, will serve to identify techniques that are most likely to succeed at the Frontier Observatory for Research in Geothermal Energy (FORGE), the GTO’s flagship EGS research effort. As noted, outcomes from the EGS Collab project experiments will serve as benchmarks for computer code verification, but numerical simulation additionally plays an essential role in designing these meso-scale experiments. This paper describes specific numerical simulations supporting the design of Experiment 1, a field test involving hydraulic stimulation of two fractures from notched sections of the injection borehole and fluid circulation between sub-horizontal injection and production boreholes in each fracture individually and collectively, including the circulation of chilled water. Whereas the mine drift allows for accurate and close placement of monitoring instrumentation to the developed fractures, active ventilation in the drift cooled the rock mass within the experimental volume. Numerical simulations were executed to predict seismic events and magnitudes during stimulation, initial fracture orientations for smooth horizontal wellbores, pressure requirements for fracture initiation from notched wellbores, fracture propagation during stimulation between the injection and production boreholes, tracer travel times between the injection and production boreholes, and produced fluid temperatures with chilled water injections, and pressure limits on fluid circulation to avoid fracture growth.

Numerical Simulation, EGS Collab, EGS, Sanford Und↗

DOE OSTI2021

Characterizing mineralization on low carbon steel exposed to aerated and degassed synthetic hydraulic fracture fluids

This study investigates the mineralization occurring at the interface between injected hydraulic fracturing fluids and steel production casing during the shut-in period of unconventional shale wells. Mild steel coupons were reacted with synthetic hydraulic fracturing fluids with varying base fluid and dissolved gas concentrations. Experiments were carried out in an autoclave system set at 50 °C and 2000 PSI for 2 and 14 days. Physical and mineralogical changes to the steel coupons’ surface were characterized using an FEI Quanta 600 field emission gun (FEG) scanning electron microscope (SEM) and a PANalytical XPert Pro diffractometer. Barite precipitation occurred ubiquitously during the first 48 hours in all experimental scenarios. Sulfate radicals created from degradation and reduction of ammonium persulfate breakers facilitate barite formation. Concomitant barite and corrosion related precipitates on the sample surfaces suggest iron hydroxy salts act as nucleation sites for mineral scale growth. These results suggest hydraulic fracturing fluids may have deleterious effects on the wellbore before production of the well begins.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

DOE OSTI2016

Large-eddy simulation of nitrogen injection at trans- and supercritical conditions

Large-eddy simulations (LESs) of cryogenic nitrogen injection into a warm environment at supercritical pressure are performed and real-gas thermodynamics models and subgrid-scale (SGS) turbulence models are evaluated. The comparison of different SGS models — the Smagorinsky model, the Vreman model, and the adaptive local deconvolution method — shows that the representation of turbulence on the resolved scales has a notable effect on the location of jet break-up, whereas the particular modeling of unresolved scales is less important for the overall mean flow field evolution. More important are the models for the fluid’s thermodynamic state. The injected fluid is either in a supercritical or in a transcritical state and undergoes a pseudo-boiling process during mixing. Such flows typically exhibit strong density gradients that delay the instability growth and can lead to a redistribution of turbulence kinetic energy from the radial to the axial flow direction. We evaluate novel volume-translation methods on the basis of the cubic Peng-Robinson equation of state in the framework of LES. At small extra computational cost, their application considerably improves the simulation results compared to the standard formulation. Furthermore, we found that the choice of inflow temperature is crucial for the reproduction of the experimental results and that heat addition within the injector can affect the mean flow field in comparison to results with an adiabatic injector.

71 CLASSICAL AND QUANTUM MECHANICS, GENERAL PHYSIC↗

DOE OSTI2017

Wallula Basalt Pilot Demonstration Project: Post-injection Results and Conclusions

Deep underground geologic formations are emerging as a reasonable option for long-term storage of CO 2 , including large continental flood basalt formations. At the GHGT-11 and GHGT-12 conferences, progress was reported on the initial phases for Wallula Basalt Pilot demonstration test (located in Eastern Washington state), where nearly 1,000 metric tons of CO 2 were injected over a 3-week period during July/August 2013. The target CO 2 injection intervals were two permeable basalt interflow reservoir zones with a combined thickness of ~20 m that occur within a layered basalt sequence between a depth of 830-890 m below ground surface. During the two-year post-injection period, downhole fluid samples were periodically collected during this post-injection monitoring phase, coupled with limited wireline borehole logging surveys that provided indirect evidence of on-going chemical geochemical reactions/alterations and CO 2 disposition. A final detailed post-closure field characterization program that included downhole fluid sampling, and performance of hydrologic tests and wireline geophysical surveys. Included as part of the final wireline characterization activities was the retrieval of side-wall cores from within the targeted injection zones. These cores were examined for evidence of in-situ mineral carbonization. Visual observations of the core material identified small globular nodules, translucent to yellow in color, residing within vugs and small cavities of the recovered basalt side-wall cores, which were not evident in pre-injection side-wall cores obtained from the native basalt formation. Characterization by x-ray diffraction identified these nodular precipitates as ankerite, a commonly occurring iron and calcium rich carbonate. Isotopic characterization (δ 13 C, δ 18 O) conducted on the ankerite nodules indicate a distinct isotopic signature that is closely aligned with that of the injected CO 2 . Both the secondary mineral nodules and injected CO 2 are measurably different from the isotopic content of basalt, injection zone groundwater and for naturally occurring calcite. Final post-injection wireline geophysical logging results also indicate the presence of free-phase CO 2 at the top of the two injection interflow zones, with no vertical migration of CO 2 above the injection horizons. Furthermore, these findings are significant and demonstrate the feasibility of sequestering CO 2 in a basalt formation.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2020

Sequentially coupled flow and geomechanical simulation with a discrete fracture model for analyzing fracturing fluid recovery and distribution in fractured ultra-low permeability gas reservoirs

More accurate characterization and prediction of the in-situ distribution of fracturing fluid in fractured reservoirs are needed for enhancing well productivity. In this study, an implicit-sequentially coupled flow/geomechanics simulator incorporating an efficient discrete fracture model is developed to model fluid distribution and recovery performance of ultra-low permeability gas reservoirs. The finite-volume and finite-element methods are used for space discretization of the flow and geomechanics equations, respectively, while the backward Euler method is employed for time discretization. The flow and geomechanics equations are solved sequentially based on fixed-stress splitting. An efficient discrete-fracture model is used to explicitly model the fractured system. Flexible unstructured gridding is employed to model arbitrarily-oriented fractures. The interrelations among pore volume, permeability and geomechanical conditions are considered dynamically using two-way coupled flow and geomechanics computations. The geometry of fracture (networks) due to hydraulic fracturing has significant impacts on the fracturing fluid recovery efficiency and ensuing fluid distribution. Under the same injection volume, the fracturing fluid recovery is higher when the fracture geometry is planar. Fluid recovery is relatively lower whenever natural fractures are activated during fracturing treatments; flowback time is also shortened when complex fracture network with enlarged fracture interface is present. Fracturing fluid in hydraulic fractures may leak off into the natural fractures and subsequently imbibes into the surrounding matrix due to capillarity effects. The fracturing fluid recovery and in-situ fluid distribution are sensitive to the shut-in duration and fracture closure behavior. This study analyzes the coupled flow-geomechanical responses of fractured gas reservoirs during the post-fracturing periods. Understanding the fate of the fracturing fluid can provide insights on, to some extent, the stimulated fracture volume, size of the water invasion zone, and efficiency of the fracturing design. The simulation predictions can also provide more accurate initial reservoir conditions (e.g. distributions of different phases and pressure) for long-term well performance estimation.

42 ENGINEERING↗

DOE OSTI2023

Fluid mixing apparatus using high- and low-pressure fluid streams

A fluid mixing apparatus includes mixing conduits that extend through a fluid plenum and that define injection holes therethrough. The fluid plenum, which surrounds a first wall defining a main passage fluidly coupled to a low-pressure fluid source, is surrounded itself by a second wall defining a high-pressure plenum fluidly coupled to a high-pressure fluid source. The mixing conduits fluidly couple the high-pressure plenum to the main passage, and the fluid from the fluid plenum is delivered with the high-pressure fluid to the main passage, where the fluids mix before being discharged from an outlet of the main passage. The fluid mixing apparatus may be used to mix one or more fuels with high- and low-pressure air in a gas turbine combustor. Alternately, the fluid mixing apparatus may mix a fluid with high- and low-pressure water streams.

Berry, Jonathan Dwight↗

DOE OSTI2017

Laboratory Evaluation of a Natural Gas–Based Foamed Fracturing Fluid

Abstract Foams have been used as hydraulic fracturing fluids to reduce water usage and minimize the potentially deleterious impact on water-sensitive formations. Traditionally, carbon dioxide (CO2) and nitrogen (N2) have been used as the internal phase in these foamed fluids. Hydraulic fracturing with natural gas (NG) is a relatively inexpensive option, particularly if NG produced from the wellhead can be used without significant processing. In an ongoing program sponsored by the US Department of Energy (DOE), an alternative fracturing process is being developed that uses NG-based foam. Previously, the optimal thermodynamic pathway was identified to transform wellhead NG into pressurized NG suitable for use as the internal phase in a foamed fracturing fluid. Recent work has focused on preparing a NG-based foam at surface conditions typically encountered in hydraulic fracturing and measuring the stability and rheological properties of the foam. In addition, the transient response of the foam during fracture initiation was simulated using a fast-acting solenoid valve. A single base-fluid mixture was prepared by combining a commercially available viscosifier and foaming surfactant with water. The base fluid was then injected into a tee using a water pump. Simultaneously, liquefied natural gas (LNG) was pressurized using a cryogenic pump, vaporized using a heat exchanger, and injected into the tee to mix with the base fluid and generate foam. The foam then flowed through approximately 300 ft of 0.312-in. inside diameter (ID) tubing equipped with pressure transducers at several locations. The test fixture included a sight glass to visually inspect the quality of the foam. This paper reports on findings related to foam stability and rheology and compares these results to previous studies on foamed fracturing fluids.

Beck, Griffin↗

DOE OSTI2015

Electrically conductive proppant and methods for detecting, locating and characterizing the electrically conductive proppant

Electrically conductive proppants and methods for detecting, locating, and characterizing same are provided. The electrically conductive proppant can include a substantially uniform coating of an electrically conductive material having a thickness of at least 500 nm. The method can include injecting a hydraulic fluid into a wellbore extending into a subterranean formation at a rate and pressure sufficient to open a fracture therein, injecting into the fracture a fluid containing the electrically conductive proppant, electrically energizing the earth at or near the fracture, and measuring three dimensional (x, y, and z) components of electric and magnetic field responses at a surface of the earth or in an adjacent wellbore.

75 CONDENSED MATTER PHYSICS, SUPERCONDUCTIVITY AND↗

DOE OSTI2020

Electrically conductive proppant and methods for detecting, locating and characterizing the electrically conductive proppant

47 OTHER INSTRUMENTATION↗

DOE OSTI2021

Electrically conductive proppant and methods for detecting, locating and characterizing the electrically conductive proppant

Cannan, Chad↗

DOE OSTI2024

Cyclic Injection Leads to Larger and More Frequent Induced Earthquakes under Volume-Controlled Conditions

As carbon storage technologies advance globally, methods to understand and mitigate induced earthquakes become increasingly important. Although the physical processes that relate increased subsurface pore pressure changes to induced earthquakes have long been known, reliable methods to forecast and control induced seismic sequences remain elusive. Suggested reservoir engineering scenarios for mitigating induced earthquakes typically involve modulation of the injection rate. Some operators have implemented periodic shutdowns (i.e., effective cycling of injection rates) to allow reservoir pressures to equilibrate (e.g., Paradox Valley) or shut-in wells after the occurrence of an event of concern (e.g., Basel, Switzerland). Other proposed scenarios include altering injection rates, actively managing pressures through coproduction of fluids, and preinjection brine extraction. Here, in this work, we use 3D physics-based earthquake simulations to understand the effects of different injection scenarios on induced earthquake rates, maximum event magnitudes, and postinjection seismicity. For comparability, the modeled injection considers the same cumulative volume over the project’s operational life but varies the schedule and rates of fluid injected. Simulation results show that cyclic injection leads to more frequent and larger events than constant injection. Furthermore, with intermittent injection scenario, a significant number of events are shown to occur during pauses in injection, and the seismicity rate remains elevated for longer into the postinjection phase compared to the constant injection scenario.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2017

Detecting subsurface fluid leaks in real-time using injection and production rates

Here, CO 2 injection into geologic formations for either enhanced oil recovery or carbon storage introduces a risk for undesired fluid leakage into overlying groundwater or to the surface. Despite decades of subsurface CO 2 production and injection, the technologies and methods for detecting CO 2 leaks are still costly and prone to large uncertainties. This is especially true for pressure-based monitoring methods, which require the use of simplified geological and reservoir flow models to simulate the pressure behavior as well as background noise affecting pressure measurements.

42 ENGINEERING↗

DOE OSTI2021

A micromechanical hydro-mechanical-damage coupled model for layered rocks considering multi-scale structures

An anisotropic Hydro-Mechanical-Damage coupled model was established in the framework of thermodynamics for saturated layered rocks, which contain arbitrarily-distributed cracks of smaller scales and orientated bedding planes of much larger scales. Here, the proposed model considers the anisotropic damage growth and frictional sliding of cracks and shear sliding and dilatancy of bedding planes, as well as the interaction between cracks and bedding planes. Numerical implementation of the nonlinear coupled model was developed based on TOUGHREACT, which is a well-established simulator for multiphase fluid flow and reactive transport analysis. The proposed model was first validated with laboratory water injection test results on rock blocks, and then used to study the effects of injection rates, in situ stresses and bedding planes on fluid injection processes at the field scale, demonstrating the importance to consider the variation of multi-scale structures for better understanding the coupled Hydro-Mechanical responses in layered rocks.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2019

Accelerated Fill‐Up of the Arbuckle Group Aquifer and Links to U.S. Midcontinent Seismicity

The Arbuckle Group aquifer is the principal disposal zone for oil and gas field brines and hazardous/nonhazardous wastewater across the U.S. midcontinent and is traditionally viewed as an infinite capacity aquifer. Thousands of wells annually dispose hundreds of millions of barrels of wastewater into the aquifer across Kansas and Oklahoma, but direct links between injection and recent increases in seismicity have been hindered by a lack of pressure data for the Arbuckle Group. Here we present a newly compiled data set for 49 wells across Kansas that provides a unique perspective on the aquifer's performance over two decades. Statistical analysis of falloff test pressures, static fluid levels, and injection volumes shows that Arbuckle pressures and fluid levels are rising, recently at faster rates, likely associated with increased wastewater injection. The new data also suggest that the pressure diffusion, the primary driver of induced seismicity, can reach distances up to 25 km from an injection point and is connected to static fluid level rises. The compiled dataset explains the recent surge in midcontinent seismicity. The data set also suggests that the Arbuckle has finite storage capacity and that wastewater disposal across parts of the midcontinent may soon require alternatives.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗