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DOE OSTI2021

Selective penetration behavior of microgels in superpermeable channels and reservoir matrices

Gel treatment is an effective way to attack excessive water production in many mature oilfields around the world. Selective penetration is desired for successful gel treatments. That is, gel materials should easily penetrate the target zones (i.e., channeling features such as superpermeable channels) without entering/damaging the nontarget zones (i.e., reservoir matrices or oil zones). This study revealed that presence of threshold penetration pressure (ΔP th ) was responsible for selective penetration behavior of tested microgels. The concept of ΔP th was utilized to figure out favorable working conditions for effective gel treatments. Microgel dispersions were injected into superpermeable (super-k) sandpacks (mimicking super-k channels in reservoirs, 60–221 darcies), heterogeneous models with super-k channels (79–230 darcies), and sandstone cores (mimicking reservoir matrices, 50–5000 md). The results demonstrated that a minimum differential driving pressure (i.e., threshold penetration pressure, ΔP th ) was required to push microgel particles to penetrate channels or matrices. The critical penetration behavior was closely related to the particle/pore size ratio. Low ΔP th at smaller particle/pore ratios was beneficial to allow easy penetration of gel materials into the channeling zones. On the contrary, high ΔPth at larger particle/pore ratios was desirable to prevent gel materials from massively invading and damaging the matrices. Instead, the gel particles accumulated at the inlet surface, and a gel cake was gradually formed. The cake further prevented the invasion of the gels. The cake could be removed by chemical breakers to resume the injectivity/productivity of the matrices. Correlations were developed to describe the relationship between ΔP th and particle/pore ratio. A distinct transition was identified at the particle/pore ratio of about 3. This research could help identify the favorable conditions to achieve successful gel treatments. In an effective conformance treatment, the particle/pore ratio in the channel should be sufficiently low to allow easy penetration of gel materials into the channel (e.g., particle/pore ratio<2 in this study). Meanwhile, the particle/pore ratio in the matrix should be large enough to support a high ΔP th and thus prevent massive gel invasion into the matrix. This study advances the current pore scale studies (a single particle passing through a single channel) to Darcy-scale characterization.

02 PETROLEUM↗

DOE OSTI2022

Accurate and Rapid Forecasts for Geologic Carbon Storage via Learning-Based Inversion-Free Prediction

Carbon capture and storage (CCS) is one approach being studied by the U.S. Department of Energy to help mitigate global warming. The process involves capturing CO 2 emissions from industrial sources and permanently storing them in deep geologic formations (storage reservoirs). However, CCS projects generally target “green field sites,” where there is often little characterization data and therefore large uncertainty about the petrophysical properties and other geologic attributes of the storage reservoir. Consequently, ensemble-based approaches are often used to forecast multiple realizations prior to CO 2 injection to visualize a range of potential outcomes. In addition, monitoring data during injection operations are used to update the pre-injection forecasts and thereby improve agreement between forecasted and observed behavior. Thus, a system for generating accurate, timely forecasts of pressure buildup and CO 2 movement and distribution within the storage reservoir and for updating those forecasts via monitoring measurements becomes crucial. This study proposes a learning-based prediction method that can accurately and rapidly forecast spatial distribution of CO 2 concentration and pressure with uncertainty quantification without relying on traditional inverse modeling. The machine learning techniques include dimension reduction, multivariate data analysis, and Bayesian learning. The outcome is expected to provide CO 2 storage site operators with an effective tool for timely and informative decision making based on limited simulation and monitoring data.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2021

Method for optimization of huff-n-puff gas injections in hydrocarbon reservoirs

Methods for optimization of liquid oil production by huff-n-puff in shale reservoirs to achieve an improved (and optimal) oil recovery factor. The process determines and utilizes the optimum huff and puff times, number of cycles and soaking time under practical operation and reservoir conditions. The huff time in the process is a period so long that the pressure near the wellbore reaches the set maximum injection pressure during the huff period. The puff time in the process is the time required for the pressure near the wellbore to reach the set minimum production pressure during the puff period. Soaking is typically not necessary during the huff-n-puff gas injection in shale oil reservoirs. The number of huff-n-puff cycles is determinable by the time in which the economic rate cut-off is reached.

Sheng, James J.↗

DOE OSTI2023

Method for optimization of huff-n-puff gas injection in hydrocarbon reservoirs

Sheng, James J.↗

DOE OSTI2020

Coupled Thermo–Hydro–Mechanical Modeling of Hydro-Shearing Stimulation in an Enhanced Geothermal System in the Raft River Geothermal Field, USA

The Raft River Enhanced Geothermal System (EGS) demonstration project aims to improve the geothermal production by enhancing the reservoir permeability via shear stimulation in well RRG-9. In this paper, we performed a series of 3D thermo– hydro–mechanical (THM) simulations to investigate the influence of hydraulic and thermal effects on the development of this EGS. The model includes synthetic fracture populations based on borehole televiewer images and in-situ stress measurements from well RRG-9. Fracture permeability evolution is determined using an empirical permeability law developed from laboratory experiments. The model was calibrated by comparing the hydraulic response to field observations, including wellhead pressure, injection rate, and well injectivity. Particularly, we analyzed the enhancement of reservoir permeability and the spatial extent of the stimulation zone for the given injection schedule. Our results indicate that the permeability enhancement of fractured geothermal reservoir is caused by the combined effects of injection-induced cooling and fluid pressure increase. The decrease of temperature plays a dominant role in reactivation of natural fractures under the hydro-shearing mechanism, while the higher injection pressure promotes shear failure and enlarges the stimulation zone. Finally, for the specified extensional stress state, the model favors greatest permeability enhancement along the maximum horizontal principal stress, a moderate vertical enhancement, and a smaller gain along the minimum horizontal principal stress.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2024

Multi-fluid, earth battery energy systems and methods

The present disclosure relates to a system for storing and time shifting at least one of excess electrical power from an electrical power grid, excess electrical power from the power plant itself, or heat from a heat generating source, in the form of pressure and heat, for future use in assisting with a production of electricity. An oxy-combustion furnace is powered by a combustible fuel source, plus excess electricity, during a charge operation to heat a reservoir system containing a quantity of a thermal storage medium. During a discharge operation, a discharge subsystem has a heat exchanger which receives heated CO 2 from the reservoir system and uses this to heat a quantity of high-pressure, supercritical CO 2 (sCO 2 ) to form very-high-temperature, high-pressure sCO 2 at a first output thereof. The very-high-temperature, high-pressure sCO 2 is used to drive a Brayton-cycle turbine, which generates electricity at a first output thereof for transmission to a power grid. The Brayton-cycle turbine also outputs a quantity of sCO 2 which is reduced in temperature and pressure to a heat recuperator subsystem. The heat recuperator subsystem circulates the sCO 2 and re-heats and re-pressurizes the sCO 2 before feeding it back to the heat exchanger to be even further reheated, and then output to the Brayton-cycle turbine as a new quantity of very-high-temperature, high-pressure sCO 2 , to assist in powering the Brayton-cycle turbine.

Buschek, Thomas A.↗

NASA NTRS1972

Experimental plasma studies

The rate coefficients for the reactions C(+) + e(-) + e(-) yields C + e(-) and CO(+) + e(-) yields C + O were measured over the electron temperature range of approximately 1500 deg K to 7000 deg K. The measurements were performed in CO that had expanded from equilibrium reservoir conditions of 7060 deg K at 17.3 atm pressure and from 6260 deg K at 10.0 atm pressure. Two RAM flight probes were used to measure electron density and electron temperature in the expanding flow of a shock tunnel. Experiments were performed in the inviscid flow with both probes and in the nozzle-wall boundary layer with the constant bias-voltage probe. The distributions of electron density and electron temperature were independently measured using voltage-swept thin-wire probes. Thin-wire Langmuir probes were also used to measure the electron-density and electron-temperature distributions in the boundary layer of a sharp flat plate located on the nozzle centerline. Admittance measurements were performed with the RAM C and RAM C-C S-band antennas in the presence of an ionized boundary layer.

Dunn, M. G.↗

NASA NTRS1978

A re-entrant groove hydrogen heat pipe

This paper extends the development of reentrant groove technology to hydrogen heat pipes. Parametric analyses are presented which optimize the theoretical design while considering the limitations of state-of-the-art extrusion technology. Acceptable production-type runs of extruded lengths (over 300 m) could only be achieved at the expense of a wider nominal groove opening than specified (0.33 mm vs. 0.20 mm). However, dimensional variations of other critical dimensions were within 0.05 mm, which exceeded expectations. The 6063-T6 aluminum extrusion is 14.6 mm OD with a wall thickness of 1.66 mm and contains 20 axial grooves which surround a central 9.3-mm-diam vapor core. Each axial groove is 0.775-mm-diam with a 0.33 mm opening. An excess vapor reservoir is provided at the evaporator to minimize the pressure containment hazard during ambient storage. Details of the instrumentation and helium-cooled test installation are also presented.

Alario, J.↗

NASA NTRS1979

Design, fabrication and test of a hydrogen heat pipe

Re-entrant groove technology was extended to hydrogen heat pipes. Parametric analyses are presented which optimize the theoretical design while considering the limitations of state-of-the-art extrusion technology. The 6063-T6 aluminum extrusion is 14.6 mm OD with a wall thickness of 1.66 mm and contains 20 axial grooves which surround a central 9.3 mm diameter vapor core. Each axial groove is 0.775 mm diameter with a 0.33 mm opening. An excess vapor reservoir is provided at the evaporator to minimize the pressure containment hazard during ambient storage. Modifications to the basic re-entrant groove profile resulted in improved overall performance. While the maximum heat transport capacity decreased slightly to 103 w-m the static wicking height increased markedly to 4.5 cm. The heat pipe became operational between 20 and 30 K after a cooldown from 77 K without any difficulty. Steady state performance data taken over a 19 to 23 K temperature range indicated: (1) maximum heat transport capacity of 5.4 w-m; (2) static wicking height of 1.42 cm; and (3) overall heat pipe conductance of 1.7 watts/deg C.

Alario, J.↗

NASA NTRS1987

Model calculations of minor ion populations in the plasmapause

Recent observations of the density of minor ions at high altitudes in the outer plasmasphere show relative enhancements of O(2+) in regions of simultaneous O(+) enhancements. These regions also exhibit high ion temperatures. Computer simulations of the temperature structure of the plasmasphere under conditions of electron heating in the equatorial region suggest that such heating produces large gradients in both the electron and ion temperature in the ionosphere. These gradients result in an increase in the pressure of the electrons, which increases the polarization field, and of the ions, which results in large plasma scale heights at low altitudes and increased ion densities at high altitudes. The subsequent enhanced flux of O(2+) from the ionosphere produced by collisional drag of O(2+) by O(+) and the increased polarization field results in a significant increase in the O(2+) density above the ionosphere. At higher altitudes the O(2+)-O(+) collisions inhibit the upward flow of O(2+) resulting in a high-altitude peak in the O(2+) density. Above this peak, where collisions with O(+) begin to become insignificant, the O(2+) pressure gradient pushes the O(2+) into the equatorial reservoir. Simulations of conditions of moderate flux tube depletion result in an increase in this effect. The N(+) is also affected by collisions with O(+), but the increase in its density at high altitudes is primarily due to the scale height effect.

Chandler, M. O.↗

NASA NTRS2020

Capturing an Evolving Nebular Environment: A Petrographic and Geochemical Study of a Type A, B & C CAI

Calcium, Aluminum-rich Inclusions (CAIs) were the first formed solids in our Solar System, with mineral assemblages reflecting the first phases predicted to condense out of a hot nebular gas of Solar composition. Geochemical, textural and crystallographic information in CAIs can be used to constrain the temperature, pressure, and composition (e.g., oxygen fugacity) of the gaseous reservoir(s) from which they formed, as well as any secondary (nebular and parent body) processes they underwent. Coordinated geochemical and textural analyses provide information on nebular conditions (i.e., astrophysical environments and dynamics of nebular gas reservoirs) in which these CAIs formed. In order to better understand the evolution of nebular reservoirs at the time of CAI formation, we analyzed a Type A, B and C CAI using Electron Probe Micro-Analyzer (EPMA) and Electron BackScatter Diffraction (EBSD) at NASA Johnson Space Center (JSC).

Comins, M. B.↗

DOE OSTI2020

Subtask 1.5 – CO2 Injection Monitoring with an Optimized Scalable, Automated, Semipermanent Seismic Array

The scalable, automated, semipermanent seismic array (SASSA) method is a flexible and relatively cost-effective surface geophysical method for regular time-lapse monitoring of the movement of injected carbon dioxide (CO2) in a reservoir for CO2 enhanced oil recovery (EOR) or geologic CO2 storage operations. It has the advantages of a low-environmental-footprint while monitoring regions of a reservoir from the surface without the need for a regular grid distribution of receivers. Automated data collection is possible. As only time-lapse amplitude changes at the reservoir level due to CO2 movement within the reservoir are monitored, the turnaround time to deliver results from the SASSA method can be short, without the need for long, time-consuming data-processing workflows. As data is collected and processed, incremental information can be provided to the field operator. The Energy & Environmental Research Center (EERC) conducted a SASSA field test from September 2018 to November 2020 in a portion of the Bell Creek Field in Montana, which implemented new CO2 EOR field activities during the study period. Lessons learned from a proof-of-concept study were incorporated to improve the data quality of the SASSA method and demonstrate the viability of the technology. The EERC implemented several enhancements to improve data quality, including 1) an iterative survey design, which allowed placing the receivers in strategic locations where the movement of the CO2 in the reservoir could be tracked with minimum interference by the cultural noise in the study area; 2) the use of powerful seismic sources in the form of surface orbital vibrators, and 3) data acquisition during optimal periods. History-matched reservoir simulation was performed to predict gas saturation and pressure response induced by CO2 injection in the study area. The results were compared with the SASSA-measured responses to CO2 injection as a partial validation technique. A match between the two methods was observed for most of the SASSA points predicted to have intersected a CO2 saturation change. The validated results provide confidence that the SASSA method can be used independently as a CO2 saturation monitoring technique. As data are collected and processed, incremental information can be provided to the field operator. The critical components of the SASSA workflow for a successful application of the method are the following: Iterative survey design with information about CO2 injection activities from the oilfield operator. A detailed CO2 injection plan is the key driver to select the strategic monitoring location of the SASSA sensors. After this information is incorporated in the initial distribution of sources and receivers in the study area, high-resolution satellite images are used to identify ground locations not affected by cultural noise sources, such as power lines, pipelines/flow lines, or roadways. In the next iteration of the survey design, a scouting trip to the study area is needed to understand more details of the noise sources identified in the previous step and the intensity of the field activities that can also generate noise during the monitoring. Integrating the information from the scouting trip into the survey design to select the optimum source and receiver locations is the final step. Noise attenuation. The variety of noise types during seismic monitoring of an oil field is enormous. Tailored noise characterization and processing at a node-by-node level can enhance the performance and sensitivity of the SASSA technique. Future advancements that could improve the efficiency and application of the SASSA technology include: Gaining a better understanding of the noise field produced by the seismic source to aid the choice of receiver location. Surface noise from the source can overwhelm the small signal changes due to CO2 that the SASSA method measures. Improved data-processing workflow to automatically analyze and adapt to dynamic noise conditions associated with industrial settings. This subtask was funded through the EERC–DOE Joint Program on Research and Development for Fossil Energy-Related Resources Cooperative Agreement No. DE- FE0024233.

29 ENERGY PLANNING, POLICY, AND ECONOMY↗

DOE OSTI2022

Application of Dimensionality Reduction in Machine Learning Modeling of CO2 Storage

In this study, we developed deep learning models that are capable of predicting spatio-temporal outputs of CO2 saturation, pressure, and brine production in a 3D saline storage reservoir over 30 years of continuous CO2 injection and a 50-year post-injection timeframe. To improve computational efficiency and maintain performance accuracy, the model framework involves ensembling multi-layer autoencoder networks that provide dimensionality reduction of geologic inputs with fully connected long short-term memory (LSTM) neural networks that generate time-series prediction. This study was presented as poster at the 2022 Carbon Management Project Review Meeting held in Pittsburgh, PA (August 15 – 19, 2022).

Bello, Kolawole↗

DOE OSTI2023

Vertical high-pressure rinse machine

A high-pressured rinsing system comprises a base including a liquid reservoir, a rotation motor housing including a rotation motor adapted to rotate a spray wand attached, and extending vertically upward from, the rotation motor housing and base, a linear rail support frame attached the base and including a vertical motor and associated linear rail attached thereto, a cavity mounting plate attached to the linear rail, wherein vertical movement of the linear rail causes vertical movement of the cavity mounting plate over the base; and at least one door and a plurality of side panels mounting to an enclosure support frame, wherein the enclosure support frame is mounted and secured to the linear rail support frame and base to create an enclosure around the spray wand and linear rail.

Ring, Timothy J.↗

DOE OSTI2022

Assessing Impacts on Pressure Stabilization and Leasing Acreage for CO 2 Storage Utilizing Oil Migration Concepts

Favorable geological storage for CO 2 has long been pictured as large anticlines with thick sandstones, similar to oil reservoirs in the petroleum system. Unlike oil, however, stored CO 2 does not need to be recoverable, which raises the possibility of using dissolution and residual trapping to augment the capacity of buoyant traps and tap more of the bulk rock volume. The work presented builds on that idea, asking the following question: If we inject CO 2 down to a syncline – analogous to the carrier bed in the petroleum system – how would this injection mechanism impact storage capacity and plume shape, migration, and stabilization? To address this question, we built a reservoir model, based on seismic interpretation of Middle Miocene strata, offshore Galveston, Texas. 3-D seismic and well logs were used to characterize key intervals. Reservoirs chosen for modeling are progradational-aggradational sands with mud intercalation. They have a higher degree of heterogeneity than the more conventional reservoirs commonly targeted for CO 2 storage. Modeling investigated how far the CO 2 plume would migrate under two scenarios: (1) injecting CO 2 at the base of the salt withdrawal basin (syncline scenario) and (2) injecting CO 2 at the base of the structural closure, similar to a common injection well location for EOR purposes (base scenario). For each scenario, we separately simulated injection of 30 MT of CO 2 and 60 MT of CO 2 continuously for 30 years and observe the plume and pressure evolution for 100 years after the injection stops. The simulation shows that injecting the CO 2 into a syncline limits the vertical migration of CO 2 , thus making synclinal injection more secure. In the syncline scenario, the geological layer around the injection point is more heterogeneous than the layer in the base scenario; thus, the CO 2 tends to migrate laterally. Additionally, in the syncline scenario, the plume does not even reach the upper part of the anticline, allowing us to safely store an additional amount of CO 2 into the reservoir. Furthermore, the simulation also shows that in the syncline scenario, the times needed for the reservoir to reach its stabilized pressure after the end of injections are faster. To summarize, CO 2 injection at the base of a syncline could provide additional storage, increase the safety of the project from the limited vertical plume migration, and expedite plume stabilization, which could result in the decrease of monitoring frequency as the project runs, thus lowering the operating cost of the project in the long run.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Measurements of Temperature and Enthalpy in NASA Ames 60-MW Arcjet using Atomic Oxygen and Atomic Nitrogen Absorption

We report on measurements of temperature and enthalpy in the 60-MW Interaction Heating Facility (IHF) Arcjet at the NASA Ames Research Center. These quantities were measured at sub-second temporal resolution using tunable diode laser absorption spectroscopy, employing four Distributed Feedback (DFB) lasers to simultaneously probe the arcjet flow. Optical access was achieved through a specially-designed optical disk mounted in series with the modules of the arc heater in the add-air plenum of the column, which is positioned between the downstream electrodes and the nozzle. Gas at this measurement location serves as the reservoir condition for the ensuing supersonic expansion. Conditions in the reservoir are extreme, with temperatures between 5000-8000 K and pressures between 1-9 atm. Absorption from the 5S state of atomic oxygen at 777.2 nm and the 4P state of atomic nitrogen at 868.0 nm, two electronically-excited quantum states, formed the basis of the flow characterization measurements. Fiber-coupled laser light was pitched through the IHF via 1/8" ports in the optical disks, permitting optical access with minimal intrusion to the flow. Data was collected at 3 nominal conditions, a Low condition (1600 A, 2000 V, 0.13 kg/s), a Medium condition (3500 A, 5700 V, 0.61 kg/s), and a High condition (5900 A, 6800 V, 0.84 kg/s). Measurements suggest agreement within 1-2% between excited oxygen and excited nitrogen thermometry, indicating approximate thermal and chemical equilibration of the arcjet reservoir state, a result in keeping with long-standing assumptions of CFD modelling. Spatial gradients are found in the flow due to enthalpy loss to the facility walls, but the measured spatial non-uniformities are consistent with axi-symmetry. Measurements of specific enthalpy in the reservoir are also made utilizing excited oxygen and excited nitrogen absorption under the assumption of chemical equilibration.

Peter M. Finch↗

DOE OSTI2021

A comprehensive analysis of transient pressure and rate data from CO 2 storage projects in a depleted pinnacle reef oil field complex, Michigan, USA

Pressure and rate data are commonly recorded as part of a basic monitoring program in CCS projects. This paper discusses the application of multiple analytical techniques to interpret pressure and rate transient data from CO 2 injection and storage operations. The techniques of interest, i.e., injection-falloff analysis, injectivity/productivity index analysis and pressure pulse arrival time analysis, are commonly used in the oil and gas industry to assess reservoir properties, but not well known in the CCS literature (especially the last two). Injection-falloff analysis involves log-log pressure derivative plotting for the falloff data and history-matching of the entire injection-falloff sequence to determine permeability. In the injectivity/productivity index analysis, rate-normalized pressure buildup is plotted against material balance time or ratio of cumulative injection to injection rate to determine the injectivity index (ratio of injection rate to stabilized pressure buildup) which can be related to the permeability-thickness product. The arrival time analysis identifies the arrival of a pressure disturbance (~0.1 psi change from ambient) to determine the hydraulic diffusivity from which permeability can be estimated. The applicability of these techniques is demonstrated via illustrative examples from multiple wells in different pinnacle carbonate reefs undergoing CO 2 -EOR in Northern Michigan. The paper ends with a discussion of the relative merits of each interpretive technique, as well as recommendations that could be useful for other field projects.

42 ENGINEERING↗

DOE OSTI2022

Leakage From Coexisting Geologic Forcing and Injection‐Induced Pressurization: A Semi‐Analytical Solution for Multilayered Aquifers With Multiple Wells

Abstract Abnormal fluid pressures (above or below hydrostatic pressure) can develop and persist in sedimentary basins. The common occurrence of abnormal pressures may cause challenges for project permitting of geological carbon sequestration (GCS), particularly in reservoirs with pre‐injection overpressure. The leaky wells that may exist in some sedimentary basins can provide flow paths between deep brine aquifers and shallower freshwater aquifers. Pre‐injection relative overpressures can cause brine leakage through leaky wells even before any injection occurs. The tendency for flow through leaky wells is coupled with the process of pressure dissipation that occurs through aquitards. Specifically, with non‐zero permeability, aquitards can dissipate pressure over large areal extents and thereby reduce leakage rates through leaky wells. This study presents development of a semi‐analytical solution for hydraulic head and brine leakage in multilayered aquifer–aquitard systems with geologic pressure forcing. The geologic forcing that causes abnormal pressures in the multilayered system can coexist with any number of injection, extraction, and leaky wells that also affect fluid pressure. The semi‐analytical model is applied to explore how leakage through leaky wells varies as functions of pressurization rate, along with aquitard and leaky well properties in an overpressured multilayered system. The results show that although injection‐induced pressures can dissipate rapidly through suitably permeable aquitards, coexisting geologic forcing may create sustained rates of brine leakage into freshwater aquifers through leaky wells. In GCS, a very low‐permeability aquitard with high capillary entry pressure to free‐phase CO 2 is desired to serve as the caprock to prevent leakage of CO 2 from the storage reservoir. Nevertheless, the results from this study show that the brine leakage impact to shallow freshwater aquifers through leaky wells might substantially decrease with increasing aquitard permeability values, as long as small aquitard permeability and high capillary entry pressure serve to prevent CO 2 leakage.

Cihan, A.↗