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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2024

Navigating Urban Mobility: Evaluating Infrastructure Strategies for Enhanced Energy-Efficient Access for Micromobility

Cities and communities continue to expand pedestrian and bicycle infrastructure as part of their sustainable mobility and post-pandemic recovery plans. However, the emergence of micro-mobility (e.g., electric bicycles) has created new challenges for urban transport planning. As the popularity of micro-mobility modes has grown, so have safety concerns due to rising injuries, thus challenging many cities to come up with regulatory measures that enable efficient access while minimizing negative impacts from micro-mobility. Leveraging the Open-Source Tool (Mobility Energy Productivity metric), powered by an open-source dataset (OpenStreetMap), and enhanced through the incorporation of perceived discomfort (level-of-traffic stress), this research study focuses on evaluating the accessibility implications of infrastructure planning and regulatory measures for micro-mobility. Five scenarios pertaining to level of traffic stress, sidewalk access, traffic calming, and bike lane coverage were tested in the Denver-Aurora region in Colorado. Maximum improvements in energy-efficient access are realized when allowing sidewalks for micro-mobility use. Cities and planning agencies could leverage this information to assess sidewalk use policies for micro-mobility, while ensuring pedestrian safety and ADA access. Results indicate that expansion of bicycle lane coverage yields 11% accessibility benefits for micro-mobility compared to implementing traffic calming measures yielding 3% accessibility improvements. Further, it was observed most of the population in the Denver-Aurora region is experiencing lower accessibility in-part due to presence of a high-stress connections in the network. Although not generalizable, the use of open-source data and access calculation methodology, make this analysis reproducible and transferable to other locations.

ADVANCED PROPULSION SYSTEMS↗
DOE OSTI2022

Proceedings of the international conference on physics of reactors - Physor 2022

The theme for this year's conference is 'Making Virtual a Reality: Advancements in Reactor Physics to Leap Forward Reactor Operation and Deployment'. As we leap forward to the future of nuclear technology, micro-reactors, small modular reactors, advanced reactors, and high energy LWR fuel are at the forefront of the topics.The Physor 2022 will cover a broad range of topics in thirty standard and special sessions tracks, and ten panel sessions gathering more than 350 papers.

22 GENERAL STUDIES OF NUCLEAR REACTORS↗
DOE OSTI2024

Operation and Security Considerations for Heat Pipe Cooled Microreactors

Microreactors and small modular reactors (SMRs) are anticipated to be key elements in the United States' carbon-free energy portfolio, serving as reliable power sources for remote communities, disaster relief zones, extraterrestrial deployments, and backup power needs. Microreactors employ technologies that are substantially more advanced and recent compared to conventional reactors. Furthermore, they are of a drastically smaller scale and are designed to be operated in a diverse set of locations, offering operational flexibility and mobility. In addition, the autonomous or semi-autonomous operation of microreactors with minimal or no on-site staff is anticipated. These factors give rise to specific challenges with regards to their safety and security. The present work investigates considerations related to heat pipe operation, reactor transport, and cyber/cyberphysical security to ensure the indirect and direct consequences of nefarious actors’ actions are understood and can be mitigated by design or through physical security measures. In addition, future directions are proposed for consideration by both HPMR designers and for regulators.

22 GENERAL STUDIES OF NUCLEAR REACTORS↗
DOE OSTI2025

Sparge Sampling of Molten Salts for Online Monitoring via Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy

A method was developed to sample molten salts by sparging to generate and transport aerosols to an isolated instrument for compositional analysis by laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS). Real-time monitoring of molten salt composition is critical to developing molten salt nuclear reactors, which offer enhanced safety and efficiency. In this article, the sparge sampling method is described and compared with sampling using a Collison nebulizer. The size distribution and transport of aerosols produced from molten eutectic NaNO 3 –KNO 3 salt were compared for multiple gas flow rates (75–1200 mL min –1 ) and transport distances (0.68–2.61 m). Both methods produced aerosols ranging from 0.5 to 5.0 μm determined using a cascade impactor. Aerosols were effectively transported without pre- or trace-heating of gas lines, but transport efficiency was reduced by the formation of agglomerates. Sparge sampling was found to use less sample and less gas than a Collison nebulizer while producing a more concentrated aerosol stream (up to 5 μg L –1 ). The effects of laser energy and delay time on the signal quality of LIBS measurements of these aerosols were also studied. High energy and short delay times were found to enhance signal and repeatability, whereas signal-to-background and signal-to-noise ratios were highest at low energy and longer delay times. The capabilities of this system for online monitoring of molten salts were demonstrated with calibrations for Sr and Li with relative standard deviations of 2.6% and 1.5% and limits of detection of 380 and 180 μg g –1 , respectively.

Aerosols↗
DOE OSTI2020

A Comparison of RESRAD and GoldSim Models for Assessing Radiological Dose for a RCRA Landfill - 20418

US Ecology Idaho (USEI) operates a Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) Subtitle C, Hazardous Waste Treatment, Storage, and Disposal (TSD) Facility on a 640-acre property in Owyhee County, Idaho. USEI accepts a wide variety of RCRA-exempt low activity radioactive wastes, including naturally occurring radioactive material (NORM) and technologically enhanced NORM (TENORM) (USEI 2009). The performance of the landfill with regard to radiological operating permit requirements was previously assessed using a model constructed with the residual radioactivity (RESRAD) computer program, developed by Argonne National Laboratory for the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE). RESRAD supports the evaluation of several environmental transport pathways related to a radionuclide-contaminated soil source term, but it was not conceived as a model for the evaluation of landfill radiological performance. A more comprehensive and realistic model is desired in order to better support submissions to both the State of Idaho's Department of Environmental Quality as well as the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. A Performance Assessment (PA) computer model was developed using GoldSim software for the USEI RCRA Subtitle C landfill. The RESRAD computer model was specifically developed for calculating soil cleanup criteria and radiological dose and cancer risk from residual radioactive material in soil. To evaluate site-specific conditions, users may select from among a number of available environmental transport and exposure pathways and modify 'default' parameter values. In GoldSim, a user must construct the model 'from scratch.' However, this modeling is facilitated by a number of specialized elements available in GoldSim to support a radiological mass transport model. These include elements for defining radiological decay and ingrowth, container failure and radiological release, advective and diffusive transport, and other processes. Advantages afforded by the use of RESRAD for modeling radiological dose for a RCRA Subtitle C landfill include ease of use and reasonable flexibility in specifying site-specific conditions. GoldSim allows for considerably more flexibility and site-specificity than RESRAD, including evaluation of potentially relevant environmental transport processes not supported in RESRAD. The probabilistic modeling capabilities of GoldSim also far exceed those of RESRAD. The pros and cons of RESRAD and GoldSim for this modeling problem are explored with a focus on identifying approaches and critical factors in identifying the appropriate platform. The capabilities of RESRAD and GoldSim for mathematically modeling the disposal system will be contrasted and compared. For example, the existing RESRAD radiological safety assessment evaluated potentially complete exposure pathways related to infiltration to groundwater and upwards diffusion of radon. Additional transport pathways identified in the USEI Idaho facility Conceptual Site Model include deposition of radon decay products in cover material, root uptake of radionuclides in disposed wastes by native plants, and mixing of cover material by burrowing animals. Results of the two models and how the different transport and dose pathways affect results will be discussed. (authors)

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗
DOE OSTI2026

Phenomena Identification and Ranking Tables for High Temperature Gas-Cooled Microreactors

Micro-scaled high-temperature gas-cooled reactors (micro-HTGRs) offer a promising option for reliable power in remote or off-grid locations. While the safety characteristics of modular HTGRs have been widely studied, a micro-HTGR configuration alters several key thermal-fluid phenomena that govern both normal operation and passive decay-heat removal. In many proposed concepts, the reactor vessel is oriented horizontally and integrated into an ISO shipping container to enhance transportability and modular deployment. This report documents a Phenomena Identification and Ranking Table (PIRT) exercise focused on the thermal hydraulic safety phenomena relevant to all micro-HTGRs. The objective is to systematically identify, describe, and rank the importance, uncertainty, and modeling complexity of the key phenomena that control core and vessel temperatures during normal operation, pressurized conduction cooldown (PCC), and depressurized conduction cooldown (with air ingress) conditions.

22 - GENERAL STUDIES OF NUCLEAR REACTORS↗
DOE OSTI2020

Applying Constrained Bayesian Optimization to the Design of Critical Experiments

Often when planning a criticality experiment, many design configurations are iteratively investigated with a Monte Carlo transport code. The goal is that the experiment will be optimal with respect to some variable, like the fraction of fissions occurring at a certain energy range, while simultaneously being critical. Unfortunately, the Monte Carlo transport simulations are expensive, which can ultimately limit the number of configurations that can be explored. In this work, we present how Gaussian processes (GPs) can be used as a reduced-order model in a constrained Bayesian optimization (CBO) algorithm to design a criticality experiment. The GPs replace the Monte Carlo transport simulations that explore the design space. The CBO algorithm efficiently identifies new points in the design space to run the Monte Carlo transport code while respecting the criticality constraint. It does so in a manner that both improves the accuracy of the GP and finds the approximate global optimum. We demonstrate the performance of CBO with the design of a Thermal Epithermal eXperiment (TEX) for the criticality safety validation of nuclear waste models of the Hanford Tank Farm.

73 NUCLEAR PHYSICS AND RADIATION PHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2024

Non-linear MHD modelling of transients in tokamaks: a review of recent advances with the JOREK code

Transient magneto-hydrodynamic (MHD) events like edge localized modes (ELMs) or disruptions are a concern for magnetic confinement fusion power plants. Research with the MHD code JOREK towards understanding control of such instabilities is reviewed here in a concise way to provide a complete overview, while we refer to the original publications for details. Experimental validation for unmitigated vertical displacement events progressed. The mechanism of vertical force mitigation by impurity injection was identified. Two-way eddy current coupling to CARIDDI was completed. Shattered pellet injection was simulated in JET, KSTAR, ASDEX Upgrade (AUG) and ITER. Benign runaway electron beam termination in JET and ITER was studied. Coupling of kinetic REs to the MHD is ongoing and a virtual RE synchrotron radiation diagnostic was developed. Regarding pedestal physics, regimes devoid of large ELMs in AUG were simulated and predictive JT60-SA simulations are ongoing. For ELM suppression by resonant magnetic perturbations (RMPs), AUG, ITER and EAST simulations were performed. A free boundary RMP model was validated against experiments. Evidence for penetrated magnetic islands at the pedestal top based on AUG experiments and simulations was found. Simulations of the naturally ELM-free quiescent H-mode in AUG and HL-3 show external kink mode formation prevents pedestal build-up towards an ELM within windows of the edge safety factor. With kinetic neutral particles, high field side high density formation in ITER was simulated and with kinetic impurities, tungsten transport in AUG RMP plasmas was studied. To capture turbulent transport, electro-static full-f particle in cell models for ion temperature gradient and trapped electron modes were established and benchmarked. Application to RMP plasmas shows enhanced turbulence in comparison to unperturbed states. Energetic particle interactions with MHD were studied. Flux pumping that prevents the safety factor on axis from dropping below unity was simulated. First non-linear stellarator applications include current relaxation in $l$ = 2 stellarators, while verification for advanced stellarators progresses.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2024

SAM Code Improvements for Molten Salt Reactor Transient and Species Transport Modeling

The SAM code is under development and supported by DOE-NE’s Nuclear Energy Advanced Modeling and Simulation program as a modern system-level modeling and simulation tool for advanced non-light water reactor safety analyses. These advanced reactor concepts incorporate novel and improved approaches to achieve safety and economic feasibility. This report summarizes FY24 efforts in addressing the modeling gaps in SAM for molten salt reactor (MSR) applications. These efforts focused on the solver performance related to species transport, usability of the flowing decay heat and delayed neutron precursor capabilities, and modeling gaps related to fission product transport throughout the system.

22 GENERAL STUDIES OF NUCLEAR REACTORS↗
DOE OSTI2020

Quantum prediction of ultra-low thermal conductivity in lithium intercalation materials

Lithium-intercalated layered transition-metal oxides, Li x TMO 2, brought about a paradigm change in rechargeable batteries in recent decades and show promise for use in memristors, a type of device for future neural computing and on-chip storage. Thermal transport properties, although being a crucial element in limiting the charging/discharging rate, package density, energy efficiency, and safety of batteries as well as the controllability and energy consumption of memristors, are poorly managed or even understood yet. Here, for the first time, we employ quantum calculations including high-order lattice anharmonicity and find that the thermal conductivity κ of Li x TMO 2 materials is significantly lower than hitherto believed. More specifically, the theoretical upper limit of κ of LiCoO 2 is 6 W/m-K, 2–6 times lower than the prior theoretical predictions. Delithiation further reduces κ by 40–70% for LiCoO 2 and LiNbO 2 . Grain boundaries, strain, and porosity are yet additional causes of thermal-conductivity reduction, while Li-ion diffusion and electrical transport are found to have only a minor effect on phonon thermal transport. The results elucidate several long-standing issues regarding the thermal transport in lithium-intercalated materials and provide guidance toward designing high-energy-density batteries and controllable memristors.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2022

Multiscale Experiments and Multiphysics Simulation of Multiphase Flow for Transportable Small Modular Reactors

A new type of safe, small, transportable nuclear reactor would address the intense and ever-growing global demand for energy produced via a resilient, carbon-free energy source. In this regard, transportable small modular reactors (SMRs) are being designed and developed for electricity generation within small/micro-grid/off-grid isolated systems, as well as for heat generation in industrial/residential applications. These reactors feature the capability to be fully factory fabricated and then directly transported to utilities’ sites as “plug-and-play” systems. Research and development (R&D) programs are underway at Idaho National Laboratory (INL) to successfully design, develop, and demonstrate such safe-by-design mobile reactor technologies, in collaboration with partner organizations. Multiscale experimental facilities and multiphysics simulation tools are required for reactor design verification and validation (V&V), and licensing. These advanced reactors are intended to feature passive safety systems such as passive containment cooling systems (PCCS), which consist of multiphase flows and multispecies distributions. This seminar talk will focus on designing and analyzing transportable SMR PCCS by using multiscale experiments and multiphysics computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations to support reactor licensing and safety. The corresponding research challenges are addressed via supportive verification and validation results generated by the models and simulation tools in combination with selective parametric and uncertainty analysis. This solution approach could blaze the trail for commercial adoption of such technologies. The facilities, simulation capabilities, and research opportunities available at INL in regard to such reactors and the integrated energy systems with which they go hand in hand are also discussed briefly, and may spark interest in deeper research as well as new collaborative projects.

21 SPECIFIC NUCLEAR REACTORS AND ASSOCIATED PLANTS↗
DOE OSTI2024

"Source Term Modeling for Advanced Gas Micro-Reactors"

Maintaining the safety of the public, environment, and operating personnel is the most important factor in designing, operating, maintaining, and decommissioning nuclear reactors. In recent years, there has been a growing interest in the development of micro-reactors employing TRi-structural ISOtropic (TRISO)-coated particle fuel. In gas reactors, TRISO fuel plays an important role in the safety case for high temperature reactors because of the fission product retention properties of the fuel. This ability enables the use of a functional containment strategy for the reactor where multiple barriers are used to prevent fission product release to the environment. Part of the safety analysis of these advanced reactors is the assessment of radionuclide releases under normal and accident conditions through the multiple credited safety barriers. Using conservative assumptions, a mechanistic analysis can be performed to quantify these releases that combines the probabilistic assessment of failure with analytic solutions to radionuclide transport equations. Source term modeling for TRISO fuel has been performed for previous reactor designs; however, these models are outdated, in many cases proprietary, and need updates to be applied to the current state of TRISO fuel technology and alternative gas reactor core configurations [1]. Currently, the only publicly available source term assessment for gas reactors is an expert-based Monte Carlo simulation based on the effectiveness of the fuel kernel, coating layers, and graphite block in a modular high temperature gas reactor [2]. Thus, there is a need to develop a simple, versatile, and mechanistic model of fission product release and transport in gas reactor cores that could be applied to a variety of reactors through user inputs and reactor-specific radionuclide inventories. The release is calculated by the diffusion of the key safety important fission products through the kernel, silicon carbide (SiC), graphite for both intact and defective TRISO particles based on fuel and graphite temperatures in the reactor under normal operation. These releases from the fuel enter the coolant where they can plate-out on cooler surfaces. A clean-up model is included for designs with a coolant purification system to remove fission gases. This initial distribution of fission products in the reactor serves as an initial condition for potential releases under postulated accident conditions. The model then can calculate the fission product release for any transient temperature profile and fission product releases can then be used to assess radiological dose to the workers and the public using conventional dose tools. Data on the diffusion of fission products is based on historic German TRISO experiments and the more current Department of Energy (DOE) Advanced Gas Reactor (AGR) TRISO fuel development program. The model is coded in python with inputs and outputs in excel spreadsheets, as well as python plotting utilities to aid in the interpretation of the results. References: [1] INL, NGNP Mechanistic Source Term White Paper, INL-10-17997, July 2010. [2] David A. Petti, Richard R. Hobbins, Peter Lowry, Hans Gougar, “Representative Source Terms and The Influence of Reactor Attributes on Functional Containment in Modular High Temperature Gas-cooled Reactors,” Nuclear Technology, Vol. 184, p. 181-197, Nov. 2013.

07 ISOTOPE AND RADIATION SOURCES↗
DOE OSTI2020

Effect of Nuclear Data Covariances on Integral Experiment Design with Sensitivity and Uncertainty Analysis

Washington River Protection Solutions (WRPS) uses MCNP6.2 and the Whisper code for criticality safety analyses of the Hanford Tank Farm. Together the codes derive baseline upper subcritical limits (USLs) for the waste models using experimental benchmarks. Whisper returns higher USLs, i.e. , has less of a conservative penalty, when the neutronic similarity of the experimental benchmarks to the application is high. Unfortunately, few critical benchmarks have high similarity to the Hanford tanks. The waste in the tanks is highly dilute in plutonium and contains large masses of weakly neutron-absorbing elements like iron and manganese. Experimental benchmarks typically have low sensitivity to these absorbers because they are present as structural materials. Lacking similar benchmarks, new Thermal Epithermal eXperiment (TEX) configurations with high Pu content and interstitial iron absorbers have been designed for the criticality safety validation. The features of the design have been iterated upon to maximize the similarity between the experiment and different Hanford waste models. The similarity is quantified with sensitivity analysis and uncertainty quantification using the representativity coefficient, or c k . The representativity calculation requires nuclear data covariances, which may differ between nuclear data libraries and between library versions. Because of these variations, the optimal design may depend on the nuclear data covariances library. A scenario can be envisioned where an experiment is designed, and c k is maximized, with one set of covariance data. However, when the covariance data is changed, say from ENDF/B-VII.1 to ENDF/B-VIII.0, and the benchmark is used in a criticality safety evaluation, the experiment becomes suboptimal with respect to c k . In this paper, we present how the optimal design of the new TEX experiments varied depending on the nuclear data covariances used to calculate c k . We compare ENDF/B-VII.1 and ENDF/B-VIII.0, as if the library had been updated since the design of the experiment. Additionally, we use JEFF3.3 to simulate if the covariance data of a different library had been used. The results show that the covariances do have an important effect on the designs, less so for thermal systems (where the data are more consistent between evaluations) and more so for epithermal systems where more differences exist.

73 NUCLEAR PHYSICS AND RADIATION PHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2020

Beneficiation of coal using supercritical water and carbon dioxide extraction: sulfur removal

Abstract This work explores the use of carbon dioxide, water, and their mixtures as solvent for the precombustion beneficiation of raw coal without using any toxic mineral acids in the temperature range of 200–400 °C. The fluid polarity, ionic constant, and supercritical point can be adjusted by H 2 O/CO 2 ratio and temperature. Adding carbon dioxide to hydrothermal fluid also increases the ionization by forming carbonic acid. Extractions with supercritical fluids have several benefits including enhanced mass transport, ease of separation and recycle, wide range of extractive capability and tunability, better inherent safety, and in the case of carbon dioxide and water–low cost. A semi-continuous extraction system was designed and built in which pressure, temperature and the relative flow rates of CO 2 and H 2 O can be controlled. Coal powder is kept in a packed bed and the extraction is carried out at 143 bar pressure. Using sulfur as a model heteroatom, extractive efficiency is examined as a function of the temperature, fluid composition, fluid flow, and extraction time. The results indicate that carbon dioxide, water, and supercritical water-carbon dioxide (ScWC) all can effectively extract about 50% of total sulfur from bituminous coal in 1 h. Extraction above 350 °C decreased effectiveness, and extraction above the supercritical point of pure water caused hydrothermal carbonization. ScWC extraction may provide necessary control to prevent organic dissolution while removing sulfur.

DeCuir, Matthew J.↗
DOE OSTI2022

Extreme fast charge aging: Correlation between electrode scale and heterogeneous degradation in Ni-rich layered cathodes

Extreme fast charging (XFC) is a key requirement for the adoption of battery-based electric vehicles by the transportation sector. However, XFC has been shown to accelerate degradation, causing the capacity, life, and safety of batteries to deteriorate. There are no systematic studies in the open literature regarding aging modes in Ni-rich Li y Ni 0.a Mn 0.b Co 0.c O 2 (NMCabc) cathodes caused by fast charging. Herein, we report the effects of cathode composition and electrode loading in pouch cells containing NMC532, 622 and 811 paired with graphite and cycled under XFC conditions. The relative anisotropic volume change in the unit cell increases with Ni content in low-loading cells, while it levels up for all three NMC cathodes in high-loading cells because of substantial Li plating. The amounts of lithium plating and heterogeneity on the anode, determined by crystallographic phase quantification, were found to be correlated with electrode loading and cathode heterogeneity. The concentrations of the transition metals deposited on the anodes depend on NMCabc composition in a complex way. More particle cracking and surface degradation was found in NMC811. Here, the findings in this work provide a new understanding of the failure mechanisms and their practical implications for compositional tuning of future high-Ni NMCabc cathode materials during fast charging.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2025

Bipolar plate flow channel designs for vanadium redox flow battery: a review

Vanadium redox flow battery is one of the preferred systems for grid scale energy storage due to long service life (>20000 cycles), higher efficiency (>85 %), deep discharge capability (>95 % DoD), and inherent scalability and safety. Among system components, flow field is most critical as it governs electrolyte distribution, mass transport and hydraulic performance. Here, this review examines emerging flow channel geometries, highlighting the impact of channel width (0.66 to 1.5 mm), depth (1 to 1.5 mm) and land width (0.5 to 1.5 mm) can reduce pressure drop to <10 kPa while enabling power densities above 600 mW.cm -2 . A key finding is that low channel width to depth ratio (<1) enhances voltage and energy efficiencies by improving under rib convection. The review also provides an overview of progress and perspective in bipolar plate materials, manufacturability, and shunt current mitigation strategies for stack scaling up. Cost analysis emphasizes the influence of flow field designs on the levelized cost of storage and pathways towards the US DOE's $\$$0.05 per kWh energy generation cost target. In addition, opportunities for AI/ML/DT tools assisted design and data driven optimization strategies are also outlined to accelerate next generation flow field development.

Efficiency optimization↗
DOE OSTI2022

Extreme Fast Charging: Effect of Positive Electrode Material on Crosstalk

Extreme fast charging (XFC) is a key requirement for the adoption of battery-based electric vehicles by the transportation sector. However, XFC has been shown to accelerate degradation, causing the capacity, life, and safety of batteries to deteriorate. We tested cells containing five positive electrode chemistries, LFP (olivine structure), LMO (spinel), LCO (layered), NMC811 (layered) and NCA (layered), using fast-charging protocols. After testing, the negative electrodes from cells containing positive electrodes crystallizing with a layered structure were found to have more lithium deposited on their surfaces. Further, those crystallizing with a layered structure also tended to have a larger increase in impedance than those crystallizing with a spinel or olivine structure. Characterization of the negative electrodes by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy showed that using the concentrations of LiF and Li x PO y F z as metrics, the concentration of LiF in the SEI from the cell with different positive electrodes is LFP > LMO > LCO ~ NMC811 > NCA; and for Li x PO y F z , the order is LMO > LFP > NCA > NMC811 > LCO. Clearly, the positive-electrode material was influencing the amounts of these materials formed.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2025

2009 Interstate 95 Express Phase 1A Survey

# 2009 Interstate 95 Express Phase 1A Survey The 2009 Phase 1A Survey focused on commuters using Interstate 95 express lanes between downtown Miami and the Golden Glades Interchange in Florida. Survey participants answered questions about their trip's purpose, frequency, and mode as well as demographics such as their age, race/ethnicity, and income. It also asked if and why or why not they had used Interstate 95 before and/or after the installation of two high-occupancy toll lanes, if they were satisfied with the upgrade, and about their related perceptions of safety. ## Data Collection Agency The survey was conducted by and for the Florida Department of Transportation. ## Survey Methodology The survey was conducted online in May 2009. ## Survey Records, Data, and Documentation Survey records include 9,156 participants.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗