Autonomous Systems & Robotics
Summary of human-system interaction for future human Mars missions and current STMD investments in autonomous systems and robotics.
human-system interaction↗
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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.
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Orbit selection and its impact on radiation warning architecture for a human mission to Mars
With the recent announcement of the discovery of the possibility of life on Mars, there is renewed interest in Mars missions, perhaps eventually in human missions. Astronauts on such missions are at risk to occasional periods of enhanced high energy particle flux from the sun known as Solar Particle Events. These events can pose a substantial risk to the health of the astronauts and to the on-board electronics. Effective forecast and warning of these events could provide time to take steps to minimize the risk (retreating to a safe haven, shutting down sensitive equipment, etc.) Providing that forecast capability, will require additional monitoring capability. The extent of this architecture is sensitive to the orbit selected for the transfer to and from Mars. This paper looks at the major classes of Mars missions (Conjunction and Opposition) and sub-categories of these classes and draws conclusions on the number of monitoring satellites needed for each, with a goal to reducing total system cost through optimum orbit selection.
Non-NASA Center↗
Sustaining Human Presence on Mars Using ISRU and a Reusable Lander
This paper presents an analysis of the impact of ISRU (In-Site Resource Utilization), reusability, and automation on sustaining a human presence on Mars, requiring a transition from Earth dependence to Earth independence. The study analyzes the surface and transportation architectures and compared campaigns that revealed the importance of ISRU and reusability. A reusable Mars lander, Hercules, eliminates the need to deliver a new descent and ascent stage with each cargo and crew delivery to Mars, reducing the mass delivered from Earth. As part of an evolvable transportation architecture, this investment is key to enabling continuous human presence on Mars. The extensive use of ISRU reduces the logistics supply chain from Earth in order to support population growth at Mars. Reliable and autonomous systems, in conjunction with robotics, are required to enable ISRU architectures as systems must operate and maintain themselves while the crew is not present. A comparison of Mars campaigns is presented to show the impact of adding these investments and their ability to contribute to sustaining a human presence on Mars.
Arney, Dale C.↗
Trajectory Guidance for Mars Robotic Precursors: Aerocapture, Entry, Descent, and Landing
Future crewed missions to Mars require improvements in landed mass capability beyond that which is possible using state-of-the-art Mars Entry, Descent, and Landing (EDL) systems. Current systems are capable of an estimated maximum landed mass of 1-1.5 metric tons (MT), while human Mars studies require 20-40 MT. A set of technologies were investigated by the EDL Systems Analysis (SA) project to assess the performance of candidate EDL architectures. A single architecture was selected for the design of a robotic precursor mission, entitled Exploration Feed Forward (EFF), whose objective is to demonstrate these technologies. In particular, inflatable aerodynamic decelerators (IADs) and supersonic retro-propulsion (SRP) have been shown to have the greatest mass benefit and extensibility to future exploration missions. In order to evaluate these technologies and develop the mission, candidate guidance algorithms have been coded into the simulation for the purposes of studying system performance. These guidance algorithms include aerocapture, entry, and powered descent. The performance of the algorithms for each of these phases in the presence of dispersions has been assessed using a Monte Carlo technique.
Sostaric, Ronald R.↗
"I Need More Power, Scotty!” A Parametric Review of Power and Propulsion Options for Human Missions to Mars
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nuclear electric propulsion↗
Liquid Oxygen/Liquid Methane Integrated Power and Propulsion
The proposed paper will cover ongoing work at the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Johnson Space Center (JSC) on integrated power and propulsion for advanced human exploration. Specifically, it will present findings of the integrated design, testing, and operational challenges of a liquid oxygen / liquid methane (LOx/LCH4) propulsion brassboard and Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC) system. Human-Mars architectures point to an oxygen-methane economy utilizing common commodities, scavenged from the planetary atmosphere and soil via In-Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU), and common commodities across sub-systems. Due to the enormous mass gear-ratio required for human exploration beyond low-earth orbit, (for every 1 kg of payload landed on Mars, 226 kg will be required on Earth) increasing commonality between spacecraft subsystems such as power and propulsion can result in tremendous launch mass and volume savings. Historically, propulsion and fuel cell power subsystems have had little interaction outside of the generation (fuel cell) and consumption (propulsion) of electrical power. This was largely due to a mismatch in preferred commodities (hypergolics for propulsion; oxygen & hydrogen for fuel cells). Although this stove-piped approach benefits from simplicity in the design process, it means each subsystem has its own tanks, pressurization system, fluid feed system, etc. increasing overall spacecraft mass and volume. A liquid oxygen / liquid methane commodities architecture across propulsion and power subsystems would enable the use of common tankage and associated pressurization and commodity delivery hardware for both. Furthermore, a spacecraft utilizing integrated power and propulsion could use propellant residuals - propellant which could not be expelled from the tank near depletion due to hydrodynamic considerations caused by large flow demands of a rocket engine - to generate power after all propulsive maneuvers are complete thus utilizing previously wasted mass. Such is the case for human and robotic planetary landers. Although many potential benefits through integrated power & propulsion exist, integrated operations have yet to be successfully demonstrated and many challenges have already been identified the most obvious of which is the large temperature gradient. SOFC chemistry is exothermic with operating temperatures in excess of 1,000 K; however, any shared commodities will be undoubtedly stored at cryogenic temperatures (90-112 K) for mass efficiency reasons. Spacecraft packaging will drive these two subsystems in close proximity thus heat leak into the commodity tankage must be minimized and/or mitigated. Furthermore, commodities must be gasified prior to consumption by the SOFC. Excess heat generated by the SOFC could be used to perform this phase change; however, this has yet to be demonstrated. A further identified challenge is the ability of the SOFC to handle the sudden power spikes created by the propulsion system. A power accumulator (battery) will likely be necessary to handle these sudden demands while the SOFC thermally adjusts. JSC's current SOFC test system consists of a 1 kW fuel cell designed by Delphi. The fuel cell is currently undergoing characterization testing at the NASA JSC Energy Systems Test Area (ESTA) after which a Steam Methane Reformer (SMR) will be integrated and the combined system tested in closed-loop. The propulsion brassboard is approximately the size of what could be flown on a sounding rocket. It consists of one 100 lbf thrust "main" engine developed for NASA by Aerojet and two 10 lbf thrusters to simulate a reaction control system developed at NASA JSC. This system is also under development and initial testing at ESTA. After initial testing, combined testing will occur which will provide data on the fuel cell's ability to sufficiently handle the power spikes created by the propulsion system. These two systems will also be modeled using General-Use Nodal Network Solver (GUNNS) software. Once anchored with test data, this model will be used to extrapolate onto other firing profiles and used to size the power accumulator.
Banker, Brian↗
Human Exploration of Mars: Preliminary Lists of Crew Tasks
This is a preliminary report of ongoing research that has identified 1,125 tasks that are likely to be performed during initial human expeditions to Mars. The purpose of the report is to facilitate immediate access to the task inventory by researchers whose efforts might benefit from concrete examples of the work that will likely be performed by the first human explorers of Mars and the tasks for which crew members must be prepared to perform in response to emergencies. The research that led to the task lists is being conducted under Cooperative Agreement NNX15AW34G / NNX16AQ86G for the Human Factors and Behavioral Performance Element, Human Performance Program, NASA’s Johnson Space Center. The study is ongoing and will conclude with a final report that documents all research activities and presents the results of task and ability analyses and the implications of study results to crew size and composition, personnel selection and training, and design of equipment and procedures. The research addresses the Risk of Inadequate Mission, Process, and Task Design and the Risk of Performance Errors Due to Training Deficiencies by identifying the work that will be performed during an expedition to Mars and the abilities, skills, and knowledge that will be required of crew members. The study began by developing the comprehensive inventory of 1,125 tasks that are likely to be performed during the 12 phases of initial human expeditions to Mars, from launch to landing 30 months later. This full-mission task inventory was generated by a comprehensive review of documentation and concepts of operations with the understanding that plans and tasks might change in response to continuing technological development. Note: This interim report includes no discussion of analyses and has been prepared solely to facilitate dissemination of the task lists to others whose research might benefit from detailed information about the work and other activities that are likely to be performed during the human exploration of Mars.
Stuster, Jack W.↗
NASA's Fission Surface Power Project
Nuclear Power for the Moon and Mars Nuclear power systems enable robust exploration of the Moon and Mars - Reliable energy production is essential to exploration missions - Fission power systems can provide abundant and continuous surface power in all environmental conditions on the Moon and Mars - Lunar night is 14.5 Earth days long - Mars has recurring planet-wide dust storms that can last for weeks - A fission system designed for a demonstration on the Moon will be directly applicable to human Mars exploration
Fission↗
Fission Surface Power (FSP) Project Overview
Nuclear Power for the Moon and Mars Nuclear power systems enable robust exploration of the Moon and Mars - Reliable energy production is essential to exploration missions - Fission power systems can provide abundant and continuous surface power in all environmental conditions on the Moon and Mars - Lunar night is 14.5 Earth days long - Mars has recurring planet-wide dust storms that can last for weeks - A fission system designed for a demonstration on the Moon will be directly applicable to human Mars exploration
Nuclear↗
Continuing to Build a Community Consensus on the Future of Human Space Flight: Report of the Fourth Community Workshop on Achievability and Sustainability of Human Exploration of Mars (AM IV)
To continue to build broadly based consensus on the future of human space exploration, the Fourth Community Workshop on Achievability and Sustainability of Human Exploration of Mars (AM IV), organized by Explore Mars, Inc. and the American Astronautical Society, was held at the Double Tree Inn in Monrovia, CA., December 68, 2016. Approximately 60 invited professionals from the industrial and commercial sectors, academia, and NASA, along with international colleagues, participated in the workshop. These individuals were chosen to be representative of the breadth of interests in astronaut and robotic Mars exploration.
Human Exploration↗
Human Missions to Mars Orbit, Phobos, and Mars Surface Using 100-kWe-Class Solar Electric Propulsion
Solar electric propulsion (SEP) tugs in the 100-kWe range, may be utilized to preposition cargo in the Mars system to enable more affordable human missions to Phobos and to the surface of Mars. The SEP tug, a high heritage follow-on to the 50-kWe SEP spacecraft proposed for the Asteroid Redirect Robotic Mission (ARRM), would have the same structure, tankage, electric propulsion components, and avionics as the ARRM version, But with double the number of solar arrays, Hall thrusters, and power processor units (PPUs) and would be accommodated within the same launch envelope defined for ARRM. As a feasibility study, a 950-day human mission to Phobos using a conjunction class trajectory, such as the 2033 opportunity, was developed using two 100-kWe SEP vehicles to preposition a habitat at Phobos and propulsion stages in high Mars orbit (HMO). An architecture concept for a crewed Mars surface lander mission was also developed as a reference to build on the Phobos mission architecture, adding a lander element that could be delivered using chemical propulsion and aerocapture.
Price, Humphrey W.↗
Cryogenic Insulation Solutions for the Surface of Mars with Its Unique Environments
The surface of Mars provides unique challenges for cryogenic insulation systems and for cryogenic spacecraft traveling there. In order to store cryogenic fluids for propulsion, life support, and other applications on the surface of Mars one must protect the insulation from the array of unique environmental factors that are present. Travel to Mars is a very energy intensive endeavor and landing on the surface requires launching over 200 kg of propellant and spacecraft per kilogram landed. As such, high performance, lightweight insulations are needed for cryogenic systems to be used on the surface. Traditional spacecraft use multilayer insulation that works well in a vacuum, but Mars has an atmospheric of pressure approximately 7 torr, consisting of approximately 95 % carbon dioxide. Based on analysis and trade studies NASA has shown that the mass savings from the higher performance of multilayer insulation with a vacuum jacket saved several hundred kilograms of mass for a typical human Mars ascent stage. Thus NASA, along with several contractors, have been developing a lightweight vacuum jacketed system for the 7 torr environment. This lightweight vacuum jacketed system must survive launch from earth, travel to Mars, and on the surface for several years. On the surface, it must be able to survive landing, natural environmental occurrences such as dust storms, and temperature cycling with minimal if any human maintenance. The insulation systems under development have been exposed to an array of tests to demonstrate their capability to survive these environments while still providing the high performance required to meet mission needs.
Cryogenic Fluid Management↗
Computational Analysis of a Multiple-Nozzle Supersonic Retropropulsion Configuration
Supersonic retropropulsion is an enabling capability to land large payloads on the surface of Mars. The retropropulsion flowfield is a highly dynamic environment with strong shocks, free shear layers, and plumes opposing high-speed flow. For flight vehicles with large aerodynamic surface area, such as NASA concepts for human Mars exploration, retropropulsion can induce significant aerodynamic interference forces and moments on the vehicle during powered flight. A multiple-nozzle configuration from upcoming, inert gas, sub-scale, supersonic wind tunnel testing is simulated at Mach 2.4 conditions for angles of attack of 0 and 10 degrees and thrust coefficients of 0.5, 1.0, and 2.5. This paper examines changes in the resulting flowfield, surface pressures, and integrated forces with thrust force coefficient and angle of attack using a Detached Eddy Simulation approach.
retropropulsion↗
Human Exploration of Mars Design Reference Architecture 5.0, Addendum #2
This report serves as the second Addendum to NASA-SP-2009-566, "Human Exploration of Mars Design Reference Architecture 5.0." The data and descriptions contained within this Addendum capture some of the key assessments and studies produced since publication of the original document, predominately covering those conducted from 2009 through 2012. The assessments and studies described herein are for the most part independent stand-alone contributions. Effort has not been made to assimilate the findings to provide an updated integrated strategy. That is a recognized future effort. This report should not be viewed as constituting a formal plan for the human exploration of Mars.
Drake, Bret G.↗
The Impact of Mission Duration on a Mars Orbital Mission
Performance alone is insufficient to assess the total impact of changing mission parameters on a space mission concept, architecture, or campaign; the benefit, cost, and risk must also be understood. This paper examines the impact to benefit, cost, and risk of changing the total mission duration of a human Mars orbital mission. The changes in the sizing of the crew habitat, including consumables and spares, was assessed as a function of duration, including trades of different life support strategies; this was used to assess the impact on transportation system requirements. The impact to benefit is minimal, while the impact on cost is dominated by the increases in transportation costs to achieve shorter total durations. The risk is expected to be reduced by decreasing total mission duration; however, large uncertainty exists around the magnitude of that reduction.
Arney, Dale↗
Planetary Protection Issues in the Human Exploration of Mars
This workshop report, long delayed, is the first 21st century contribution to what will likely be a series of reports examining the effects of human exploration on the overall scientific study of Mars. The considerations of human-associated microbial contamination were last studied in a 1990 workshop ("Planetary Protection Issues and Future Mars Missions," NASA CP-10086, 1991), but the timing of that workshop allowed neither a careful examination of the full range of issues, nor an appreciation for the Mars that has been revealed by the Mars Global Surveyor and Mars Pathfinder missions. Future workshops will also have the advantage of Mars Odyssey, the Mars Exploration Rover missions, and ESA's Mars Express, but the Pingree Park workshop reported here had both the NCR's (1992) concern that "Missions carrying humans to Mars will contaminate the planet" and over a decade of careful study of human exploration objectives to guide them and to reconcile. A daunting challenge, and one that is not going to be simple (as the working title of this meeting, "When Ecologies Collide?" might suggest), it is clear that the planetary protection issues will have to be addressed to enable human explorers to safely and competently extend out knowledge about Mars, and its potential as a home for life whether martian or human.
Criswell, Marvin E.↗
Proposal to Simultaneously Profile Wind and CO2 on Earth and Mars With 2-micron Pulsed Lidar Technologies
2-micron lidar technology has been in use and under continued improvement for many years toward wind measurements. But the 2-micron wavelength region is also rich in absorption lines of CO2 (and H2O to a lesser extent) that can be exploited with the differential absorption lidar (DIAL) technique to make species concentration measurements. A coherent detection receiver offers the possibility of making combined wind and DIAL measurements with wind derived from frequency shift of the backscatter spectrum and species concentration derived from power of the backscatter spectrum. A combined wind and CO2 measurement capability is of interest for applications on both Earth and Mars. CO2 measurements in the Earth atmosphere are of importance to studies of the global carbon cycle. Data on vertically-resolved CO2 profiles over large geographical observations areas are of particular interest that could potentially be made by deploying a lidar on an aircraft or satellite. By combining CO2 concentration with wind measurements an even more useful data product could be obtained in the calculation of CO2 flux. A challenge to lidar in this application is that CO2 concentration measurements must be made with a high level of precision and accuracy to better than 1%. The Martian atmosphere also presents wind and CO2 measurement problems that could be met with a combined DIAL/Doppler lidar. CO2 concentration in this scenario would be used to calculate atmospheric density since the Martian atmosphere is composed of 95% CO2. The lack of measurements of Mars atmospheric density in the 30-60 km range, dust storm formation and movements, and horizontal wind patterns in the 0-20 km range pose significant risks to aerocapture, and entry, descent, and landing of future robotic and human Mars missions. Systematic measurement of the Mars atmospheric density and winds will be required over several Mars years, supplemented with day-of-entry operational measurements. To date, there have been 5 successful robotic landings on Mars. Atmospheric density and wind reconstruction has been performed for 3 of these entries (the two Viking landers and Mars Pathfinder). At present, all Mars atmospheric density and wind models have these 3 entries (at widely scattered positions and seasons) as their basis, supplemented by coarse orbital measurements of atmospheric opacity and temperature. This lack of data leads to a large uncertainty in prediction of the Mars atmospheric density and winds in the altitude regime where deceleration of landers will occur. This uncertainty will have a dramatically large impact on mass, cost and risk. The precision and accuracy for application to Mars is not as stringent as Earth, but Mars does pose a challenge in needing a high level of wavelength stability and control in order to reference wavelength to the narrow linewidths found in the low atmospheric pressure of Mars, as illustrated in Figure 1.
Singh, Upendra N.↗
LOx/LCH4: A Unifying Technology for Future Exploration
OVERVIEW For every pound of payload landed on Mars, 226 pounds are required on Earth to get it there. Due to this enormous mass gear‐ratio, increasing commonality between lander subsystems, such as power, propulsion, and life support, results in tremendous launch mass and cost savings. Human‐Mars architectures point to an oxygen‐methane economy, utilizing common commodities scavenged from the planetary atmosphere and soil via In‐Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU) and common commodity tankage across sub‐systems.
Banker, Brian↗