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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 325 records · Page 18
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2023

A novel 3-D pulsating heat pipe module for high heat-flux applications

This study proposed a novel pulsating heat pipes (PHP) for high-flux thermal module. According to the open literature, the maximum value of the heat flux is 23.7 W∙cm –2 handled by PHP, which is far behind industry requirements. Therefore, the present study proposes a novel 3D PHP suitable for high heat-flux applications. The PHP were experimentally tested for different working fluids, including methanol and water. Furthermore, the experiments were performed to analyze the influence of various operating parameters, such as filling ratio (25–60%), heat load (100–800 W), and air flow rate 100–250 cubic feet per minute (CFM). In this work, the results showed that this PHP can sustain a heat flux up to 70 W∙cm –2 with the maximum case temperature under 80 °C, which is approximately three times higher than the available literature. Furthermore, the performance of the PHP module was compared against the commercial module with wicked heat pipe. The PHP exhibited about 7% higher heat dissipation compared to the commercial module. Since the proposed module uses simple copper tubes in its construction over the wicked structure used in commercial module, the novel 3D PHP module provides additional economic and mass production capability.

3D pulsating heat pipe↗
NASA NTRS1979

Performance evaluation of Space Shuttle SRB parachutes from air drop and scaled model wind tunnel tests

The aerodynamic performance characteristics have been determined for the Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster drogue, main, and pilot parachutes. The performance evaluation on the 20-degree conical ribbon parachutes is based primarily on air drop tests of full scale prototype parachutes. In addition, parametric wind tunnel tests were performed and used in parachute configuration development and preliminary performance assessments. The wind tunnel test data are compared to the drop test results and both sets of data are used to determine the predicted performance of the Solid Rocket Booster flight parachutes. Data from other drop tests of large ribbon parachutes are also compared with the Solid Rocket Booster parachute performance characteristics. Parameters assessed include full open terminal drag coefficients, reefed drag area, opening characteristics, clustering effects, and forebody interference.

Moog, R. D.↗
DOE OSTI2016

Waste Management 2016 300-296 Soil Remediation Project. Developing Innovative Solutions to Overcome Design Challenges - 16229

The 324 Building is a non-reactor, Hazard Category 2, Nuclear Facility located in the 300 Area of the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Hanford Site, located near Richland, Washington. The building is undergoing deactivation, decommissioning, decontamination, and demolition by Washington Closure Hanford (WCH) under the River Corridor Closure Contract. During the Cold War Era, the facility was used for chemical and radionuclide processing associated with nuclear weapons production. Historical records indicate that in October 1986, approximately 516 L of a concentrated liquid waste stream containing cesium-137 and strontium-90 was spilled onto the floor of B-Cell. B-Cell is located in the Radiochemical Engineering Complex (REC) of the 324 Building. It is estimated that this spill contained approximately 1.3 million curies of radioactivity. Some fraction of the spill was recovered; however, an unknown quantity was released into the soil beneath the 324 Building through an undetected breach in the B-Cell floor sump. Unknown quantities of water were used after the spill to wash items contained in B-Cell. When B-Cell was taken out of service, wastes being removed from B-Cell were placed in Grout Containers (GCs) and stabilized using a particulate grout. In the course of grouting activities, grout was spilled on the floor of B-Cell, eventually filling the sump. The primary scope of this project is to design, test, and implement a process capable of removing and isolating contaminated soil below B-Cell. This remediation effort has been divided into two removal zones identified as the primary and secondary removal zones. Based on current assumptions and estimates, the primary phase of this cleanup effort will remove roughly 156.45 m{sup 3} of highly contaminated materials. B-Cell debris, particulate grout, and the floor slab and liner comprise about 21.24 m{sup 3} of the total. The remaining 135.21 m3 will be contaminated soil. All of this material must be disposed of within the existing 324 Facility or packaged for disposal at the Hanford site. The objective of this project is to remove the B-Cell floor and highly contaminated underlying soils from beneath B-Cell using remote equipment to reduce the radiation levels and allow open-air excavation for the remaining contaminated soil. The challenges and subsequent technological solutions encountered from the Conceptual Design phase to the 100% Design Issued For Fabrication/Issued For Construction (IFF/IFC) consisted in part of the following: Design an efficient remote cleanup strategy for highly contaminated Low Level Waste (LLW) given the unknowns. Maintain contamination control down to 18 feet below B-Cell in a highly radioactive environment (12,870 R/Hr Cs-137 and Sr-90). Perform facility upgrades to enable remediation process implementation while maintaining integrity of pre-existing facility structure and license. Designing first-of-a-kind remote equipment for use in high radiation areas. Developing first-of-a-kind operations sequences for remote equipment while minimizing usage of original facility equipment (i.e. cranes, manipulators, etc.). Conducting time-motion studies of operations sequences to maximize efficiency while keeping dose As Low As Reasonably Achievable (ALARA) in a high dose environment. Construction of a full scale mockup to conduct performance testing in a clean environment and train the work force to operate the equipment. Overcoming scope, budget and schedule constraints associated with a fast-track DOE project. (authors)

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗
NASA NTRS1929

An investigation of the use of discharge valves and an intake control for improving the performance of N.A.C.A. Roots type supercharger

This report presents the results of an analytical investigation on the practicability of using mechanically operated discharge valves in conjunction with a manually operated intake control for improving the performance of N. A. C. A. Roots type superchargers. These valves, which may be either of the oscillating or rotating type, are placed in the discharge opening of the supercharger and are so shaped and synchronized with the supercharger impellers that they do not open until the air has been compressed to the delivery pressure. The intake control limits the quantity of air compressed to engine requirements by permitting the excess air to escape from the compression chamber before compression begins. The percentage power saving and the actual horsepower saved were computed for altitudes from 0 to 20,000 feet. These computations are based on the pressure-volume cards for the conventional and the modified roots type superchargers and on the results of laboratory tests of the conventional type. The use of discharge valves shows a power saving of approximately 26 per cent at a critical altitude of 20,000 feet. In addition, these valves reduce the amplitude of the discharge pulsations and increase the volumetric efficiency. With slow-speed roots blowers operating at high-pressure differences even better results would be expected. For aircraft engine superchargers operating at high speeds these discharge valves increase the performance as above, but have the disadvantages of increasing the weight and of adding a high-speed mechanism to a simple machine. (author)

Schey, Oscar W↗
NASA NTRS1925

Atomization of liquid fuels. Part II

This report describes the design and operation of a nozzle to inject fuel into an engine. The design of the nozzle is open, without any compulsory or automatic stop-valve. The fuel injection is regulated simply by the pressure and the adjustment of the fuel pump.

FUELS - TESTS↗
NASA NTRS2001

Active Control of Rotating Stall Demonstrated for a Multistage Compressor With Inlet Distortion

Aircraft compressors can suffer debilitating consequences as a result of rotating stall and surge events caused by inlet distortions. This is particularly true of aircraft during takeoff, when the compressor is operating at peak performance close to the surge line. Significant research has been conducted by the NASA Glenn Research Center in the area of compressor stability enhancement through active and passive control methods. Most recently, an experiment was conducted at the Wright Patterson Air Force Base Research Laboratory on a two-stage fan with inlet guide vanes and inlet distortion. In this joint Small Business Innovation Research effort between Scientific Systems and Glenn, control of rotating stall was demonstrated in a multistage transonic fan. This twostage fan with inlet guide vanes was tested under clean and distorted inlet conditions. The compressor was also configured with a circumferential distortion screen capable of 180 of distortion and with 14 high-velocity injectors upstream of the first rotor. Twelve of these injectors could oscillate up to frequencies of 450 Hz. The additional two injectors were located next to each other and were used in concert with each other as a single, on/off, high-authority actuator. In a first test of injection in this multistage environment, 12 of the valves were opened 50 percent of their full stroke to assess steady injection through the compressor. This baseline injection is shown in the compressor characteristic of the following figure, and stall margin improvements are tracked from this baseline condition. The compressor was then tested with clean inlet conditions using 12 injectors and active control. Pressure disturbances were tracked before rotating stall, and a constant gain control scheme reduced the stalling mass flow by 10.8 percent over the baseline. With the distortion screen present in the inlet, a pole-zero cancellation control scheme was used to achieve a 6.4-percent decrease in stalling mass flow. These improvements also are shown in the figure. In a final experiment, actively controlled, high-frequency injection from the 12 valves was used in conjunction with the high-authority actuators. In this test, the stalling mass flow of the compressor was reduced by 27 percent as indicated in the graph. These results were obtained by injecting less than 2 percent of the total compressor throughflow into the rotor tip region via 14 injection ports. These results mark the first successful demonstration of actively controlled air injection as a stall-control strategy for multistage compressors operating at speeds typical of an actual gas turbine engine. A goal of continuing research is to determine the combination of air-injection parameters and control strategies that are most effective in providing stall control for both clean and distorted inlet flow conditions for multistage environments. Other goals include the demonstration of stall control at many locations along the core compressor and development and application of active stall control strategies that will be integral flightworthy components of onboard engine hardware.

VanSchalkwyk, Christian↗
DOE OSTI2023

Improved Fuel Cell Chemical Durability of an Heteropoly Acid Functionalized Perfluorinated Terpolymer-Perfluorosulfonic Acid Composite Membrane

Commercial proton exchange membrane heavy-duty fuel cell vehicles will require a five-fold increase in durability compared to current state-of-the art light-duty fuel cell vehicles. We describe a new composite membrane that incorporates silicotungstic heteroply acid (HPA), α -K 8 SiW 11 O 40 ▪13H 2 O, a radical decomposition catalyst and when acid-exchanged can potentially conduct protons. The HPA was covalently bound to a terpolymer of tetrafluoroethylene, vinylidene fluoride, and sulfonyl fluoride containing monomer (1,1,2,2,3,3,4,4-octafluoro-4-((1,2,2-trifluorovinyl)oxy)butane-1-sulfonyl fluoride) by dehydrofluorination followed by addition of diethyl (4-hydroxyphenyl) phosphonate, giving a perfluorosulfonic acid-vinylidene fluoride-heteropoly acid (PFSA-VDF-HPA). A composite membrane was fabricated using a blend of the PFSA-VDF-HPA and the 800EW 3M perfluoro sulfonic acid polymer. The bottom liner-side of the membrane tended to have a higher proportion of HPA moieties compared to the air-side as gravity caused the higher mass density PFSA-VDF-HPA to settle. The composite membrane was shown to have less swelling, more hydrophobic properties, and higher crystallinity than the pure PFSA membrane. The proton conductivity of the membrane was 0.130 ± 0.03 S cm −1 at 80 °C and 95% RH. Impressively, when the membrane with HPA-rich side was facing the anode, the membrane survived more than 800 h under accelerated stress test conditions of open-circuit voltage, 90 °C and 30% RH.

08 HYDROGEN↗
DOE OSTI2022

The Dual-Axis Radiographic Hydrodynamic Test Facility Capability eXpansion (DCX) Strategy

The Dual-Axis Radiographic Hydrodynamic Test (DARHT) facility is a vital and important part of the Nation’s nuclear security enterprise. The Department of Energy/National Nuclear Security Administration (DOE/ NNSA) Stockpile Stewardship Management Plan (SSMP) identifies DARHT as a weapons mission critical facility along with the need to modernize DARHT to support weapons modernization efforts. With more than two decades of operations, DARHT has a storied history. Conceived in the 1970s, constructed in the 1990s, and operational since 2000, DARHT has advanced from open-air hydrodynamic experiments (hydros) to foam-confined hydros, to vessel-confined hydros, and in 2022, the 75 th hydro was successfully completed. Radiography has advanced from a single-axis, single-pulse system to a dual-axis, multi-pulse capability to variable fields of view (VFV) on both accelerators. The culmination of these experiences, accomplishments, and advancements has brought us to a very important question: What do the next two decades at DARHT look like? The world is not the same place it was in the 1990s when construction at DARHT was in progress. Evolving threats, an expanding mission, and technology changes necessitate adaptation. The 2018 Nuclear Posture Review (NPR) states that the nuclear weapons infrastructure has suffered the effects of age and underfunding with no margin for further delay in recapitalizing the physical infrastructure. To adapt, the aging facility, accelerators, vessels, and detector systems require improvements to ensure DARHT remains the Nation’s hydrodynamic data foundation for stockpile certification, safety, surety, and global security threats.

98 NUCLEAR DISARMAMENT, SAFEGUARDS, AND PHYSICAL P↗
DOE OSTI2023

Performance, Combustion and Emissions Evaluation of Liquid Phase Port-Injected LPG on a Single Cylinder Heavy-Duty Spark Ignited Engine

Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), like many other alternative fuels, has witnessed increased adoption in the last decade, and its use is projected to rise as stricter emissions regulations continue to be applied. However, much of its use is limited to dual fuel applications, gaseous phase injection, light-duty passenger vehicle applications, or scenarios that require conversion from gasoline engines. Therefore, to address these limitations and discover the most efficient means of harnessing its full potential, more research is required in the development of optimized fuel injection equipment for liquid port and direct injection, along with the implementation of advanced combustion strategies that will improve its thermal efficiency to the levels of conventional fuels. This paper focuses on the development of a liquid phase port-injection system for LPG, the design of a reference piston, and the baseline evaluation of the performance, combustion, and emissions characteristics of a single cylinder research engine to establish a benchmark comparable to existing LPG engines. A sweep of start of injection (SOI) timing is performed by injecting liquid LPG at several closed and open intake valve timings, which demonstrates no significant variation in engine performance, but accounts for a 10% reduction in bsCO with the optimal SOI timing. Spark timing sweep demonstrates the 50% burn crank angle location related to maximum brake torque (MBT) point with a brake thermal efficiency (BTE) of ~34% for the tested load case. The effect of equivalence ratio is also presented with optimal SOI timing at MBT condition. The engine starts exhibiting knocking combustion at 140kPa intake manifold air pressure (IMAP) with a peak torque of 253Nm and a 5% reduction in brake specific fuel consumption compared to the naturally aspirated scenario.

Fosudo, Toluwalase↗
NASA NTRS1931

The Prevention of Ice Formation on Gasoline Tank Vents

This investigation was conducted in the refrigerated wind tunnel at the Langley Memorial Aeronautical Laboratory, Langley Field, Va., to determine a suitable method for preventing the formation of ice on the vents of airplane gasoline tanks. Tests were made on a variety of vent forms arranged in a number of different orientations relative to the direction of the air stream. Both the size of the tube and its orientation were found to be of great importance. Small tubes, under equal circumstances, were found to freeze over far more rapidly than large ones. Tubes pointing downstream, or shielded in other ways, appear to be perfectly immune against this hazard. A tube 3/4 inch in diameter with the opening pointing downstream is finally recommended as being the safest choice of gas tank vent.

Theodorsen, Theodore↗
NASA NTRS2017

Comparison of Mixing Characteristics for Several Fuel Injectors on an Open Plate and in a Ducted Flowpath Configuration at Hypervelocity Flow Conditions

In order to reduce the cost and complexity associated with fuel injection and mixing experiments for high-speed flows, and to further enable optical access to the test section for nonintrusive diagnostics, the Enhanced Injection and Mixing Project (EIMP) utilizes an open flat plate configuration to characterize inert mixing properties of various fuel injectors for hypervelocity applications. The experiments also utilize reduced total temperature conditions to alleviate the need for hardware cooling. The use of "cold" flows and non-reacting mixtures for mixing experiments is not new, and has been extensively utilized as a screening technique for scramjet fuel injectors. The impact of reduced facility-air total temperature, and the use of inert fuel simulants, such as helium, on the mixing character of the flow has been assessed in previous numerical studies by the authors. Mixing performance was characterized for three different injectors: a strut, a ramp, and a flushwall. The present study focuses on the impact of using an open plate to approximate mixing in the duct. Toward this end, Reynolds-averaged simulations (RAS) were performed for the three fuel injectors in an open plate configuration and in a duct. The mixing parameters of interest, such as mixing efficiency and total pressure recovery, are then computed and compared for the two configurations. In addition to mixing efficiency and total pressure recovery, the combustion efficiency and thrust potential are also computed for the reacting simulations.

Drozda, Tomasz G.↗
NASA NTRS2020

Shield to Pin Coupling of Lightning-Like Transients on Payload Umbilical Cables on a Launch Pad

In this paper we describe in-situ testing of a long payload umbilical, on a launch site, injected with “lightning- like” transients and describe resulting pin-to-pin voltages. Injections and voltage measurements near the ground support equipment room, as well as at a location near the payload junction box, are made. The umbilical cables tested include an outer over-braid and the inner conductor coupling is examined for open circuit, short-circuit and various loads representative of spacecraft input impedances. This testing is important because the Kennedy Space Center (KSC) where the lightning occurrence is the highest in the United States, is the primary launch site for Launch Services Program spacecraft customers. Lightning planning is essential but developing a lightning plan is often overlooked or not adequately analyzed leaving the spacecraft vulnerable to time delays or even damage when lightning occurs. At other popular launch sites like Vandenberg Air Force Base (VAFB) where lightning occurs less often, although at the same or greater intensity when it does occur, lightning planning is often completely ignored by the spacecraft. The two major questions to be addressed in the lightning plan are what retesting should be done to establish a “goodness” level and what is the trigger criteria for this testing? The spacecraft will typically use a standard spacecraft check-out procedure to address the necessary retesting, but determining the trigger criteria is often an issue. For instance, a spacecraft needs to understand what their immunity is to a certain lightning magnitude and location. Determining the amount of current that can be coupled onto a spacecraft umbilical can be calculated by using worst case assumptions or measured with current probes and current measurement devices. Spacecraft can also determine what pin-to-pin voltages they are sensitive to, however pin-to-pin voltage measurements are not typically taken during the strike due to the invasive nature of this measurement. In this paper, we present detailed data on the shield to pin voltage transfer functions to provide insight to the spacecraft developers for lightning retest criteria planning. The results from this unique testing opportunity provide essential details on specific coupling mechanisms affecting spacecraft hardware that interfaces with the ground support equipment. This missing link between cable shield currents and payload susceptibility voltages has been methodically tested and representative data presented.

Trout, Dawn↗
NASA NTRS1985

Port geometry effects on thrust reverser static performance

An investigation has been conducted to provide some insight into the effect of several geometric parameters on the internal performance of thrust reverser ports for nonaxisymmetric nozzles using a single port test apparatus. This test apparatus simulates thrust reversal (conceptually) which would occur in the convergent section of the forward flight nozzle or in the constant area duct just upstream. The port opening had an aspect ratio of 6.1 (throat width/throat height) and had constant passage area from the geometric throat to the exit. The geometric parameters investigated were port angle, port corner radius, port location, and flow blocker angle. The apparatus had a single port so that thrust (vector) angle could be obtained from force balance measurements. The tests were conducted in the Static Test Stand of the Langley 16-Foot Transonic Tunnel at nozzle pressure ratios from 1.5 to 8.0 using high pressure air for propulsion simulation. Port angles (measured forward from a horizontal reference line) investigated were 75, 90, 120 and 135 deg. Sharp and rounded port corners were investigated for each port angle. Discharge coefficient, thrust ratio, and passage static pressures were measured.

Re, R. J.↗
NASA NTRS2017

High Lift Common Research Model for Wind Tunnel Testing: An Active Flow Control Perspective

This paper provides an overview of a research and development effort sponsored by the NASA Advanced Air Transport Technology Project to achieve the required high-lift performance using active flow control (AFC) on simple hinged flaps while reducing the cruise drag associated with the external mechanisms on slotted flaps of a generic modern transport aircraft. The removal of the external fairings for the Fowler flap mechanism could help to reduce drag by 3.3 counts. The main challenge is to develop an AFC system that can provide the necessary lift recovery on a simple hinged flap high-lift system while using the limited pneumatic power available on the aircraft. Innovative low-power AFC concepts will be investigated in the flap shoulder region. The AFC concepts being explored include steady blowing and unsteady blowing operating in the spatial and/or temporal domain. Both conventional and AFC-enabled high-lift configurations were designed for the current effort. The high-lift configurations share the cruise geometry that is based on the NASA Common Research Model, and therefore, are also open geometries. A 10%-scale High Lift Common Research Model (HL-CRM) is being designed for testing at the NASA Langley Research Center 14- by 22-Foot Subsonic Tunnel during fiscal year 2018. The overall project plan, status, HL-CRM configurations, and AFC objectives for the wind tunnel test are described.

Lin, John C.↗
NASA NTRS2011

Balance in Astronauts Performing Jumps, Walking and Quiet Stance Following Spaceflight

Introduction: Both balance and locomotor ataxia is severe in astronauts returning from spaceflight with serious implications for unassisted landings. As a part of an ongoing effort to demonstrate the functional significance of the postflight ataxia problem our laboratory has evaluated jumping, walking heel-to-toe and quite stance balance immediately following spaceflight. Methods: Six astronauts from 12-16 day flights and three from 6-month flights were asked to perform three self-initiated two-footed jumps from a 30-cm-high platform, walking for 10 steps (three trials) placing the feet heel to toe in tandem, arms folded across the chest and the eyes closed, and lastly, recover from a simulated fall by standing from a prone position on the floor and with eyes open maintain a quiet stance for 3 min with arms relaxed along the side of the body and feet comfortably positioned on a force plate. Crewmembers were tested twice before flight, on landing day (short-duration), and days 1, 6, and 30 following all flight durations. Results/Conclusions: Many of astronauts tested fell on their first postflight jump but recovered by the third jump showing a rapid learning progression. Changes in take-off strategy were clearly evident in duration of time in the air between the platform and the ground (significant reduction in time to land), and also in increased asymmetry in foot latencies on take-off postflight. During the tandem heel-to-toe walking task there was a significant decrease in percentage of correct steps on landing day (short-duration crew) and on first day following landing (long-duration) with only partial recovery the following day. Astronauts for both short and long duration flight times appeared to be unaware of foot position relative to their bodies or the floor. During quite stance most of crewmembers tested exhibited increased stochastic activity (larger short-term COP diffusion coefficients postflight in all planes and increases in mean sway speed).

Reschke, Millard F.↗
NASA NTRS1984

Reflectance Modeling

The main thrust of the work conducted is in the modeling of spectral responses of discontinuous conifer forest canopies, considered as collections of conical forms that are illuminated at an angle and cast shadows on contracting background. The three first-year objectives are: (1) modification of the variance-driven model to incorporate overlapping of shadows and crowns; (2) collection and analysis of photographic data to calibrate tree-spacing functions; and (3) collection of field data to determine height, spacing, and shape of conifers in open and closed stands in the Goosenest (California) test area. Modification of the invertible model uses a linear approximation to correct for the reduction in shadow and canopy area that occurs when shadows fall on crowns or tree crowns intersect. Comparison of the results of the approximation with a series of Monte Carlo simulations shows that the mean area covered by crowns or shadows is approximated quite accurately, but the variance calculated departs significantly from simulated values. The analysis of tree spacing patterns using air photos showed that spacing tended to be somewhat regular at a scale approximately equal to the average distance between trees, but at larger distance scales counts of trees in cells could be approximated acceptably by a Poisson (random) function.

Strahler, A. H.↗
NASA NTRS1957

Investigation of a Full-scale, Cascade-type Thrust Reverser

A double set of turning vanes was carried inside the jet tailpipe. To produce reverse thrust, the tailpipe opens into two side sections and the turning vanes move outward to form a V-shaped cascade, which deflects the exhaust-gas flow. Forward and reverse net thrust were measured over a range of engine speeds with the airplane stationary. Taxi tests were made to determine the comparative stopping distances using wheel braking and reverse thrust separately, and a combination of both. The effect of turning-vane spacing on thrust-reverser performance was determined by scale-model tests using unheated air.

ENGINES, TURBOJET↗
DOE OSTI2024

Challenges and Opportunities for Basic Efficiency Measures in Low-Income Homes: A Southeast Alaska Case Study

Juneau, Alaska, is the state's capital city and aims to reach 80% renewable energy for the space heating and transportation sectors by 2045. This goal highlights a need to electrify both sectors to take advantage of the inexpensive hydropower available from the local electric utility, Alaska Electric Light and Power. To that end, researchers examined the feasibility of deploying storm windows via a case study of installing storm windows in two local low-income homes. Newer models of storm windows provide an extra layer of insulation over existing windows while preserving operability and views. They can also improve comfort and reduce noise. In addition to conducting pre- and post-installation air leakage tests, energy monitoring, and occupant interviews, researchers worked with the regional housing authority and a local builder to install the storm windows and replace inoperable windows in the two houses in 2021. The team encountered several challenges, including a lack of egress windows, energy data from a wide variety of heating systems, extremely leaky homes, and installation issues, such as windows that were not square. These results point to several barriers to the widespread deployment of window upgrades in the area and open the door to opportunities to design deployment programs that improve safety and efficiency.

cold climate↗