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At least 325 records · Page 18
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2023

Coexistence of single-particle and collective excitation in Ni 61

Here, the high-spin states in 61 Ni have been studied using the fusion evaporation reaction, 50 Ti( 14 C, 3n) 61 Ni at an incident beam energy of 40 MeV. A Compton suppressed multi-HPGe detector setup, consisting of six clover detectors and three single-crystal HPGe detectors, was used to detect the de-exciting $\gamma$ rays from the excited states. The level scheme has been extended up to an excitation energy of 12.8 MeV and a tentative J π =35/2 + . The low-lying negative parity levels are found to be generated by single-particle excitation within the fp shell and also excitations to the g 9/2 orbitals as explained well with shell model calculations using the GXPF1Br+V MU (modified) interaction. Two rotational structures of regular E2 sequences with small to moderate axial deformation have been established at higher excitation energy. Most interestingly, two sequences of M1 transitions are reported for the first time and described as magnetic rotational bands. The shears mechanism for both the bands can be described satisfactorily by the geometrical model. The shell model calculation involving the cross shell excitation beyond the fp shell well reproduce the M1 and E2 sequences. The shell model predicted B(M1) values for the magnetic rotational band B1 show the decreasing trend with spin as expected with closing of the shears.

73 NUCLEAR PHYSICS AND RADIATION PHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2022

Measurement of the U 235 ( n , f ) prompt fission neutron spectrum from 10 keV to 10 MeV induced by neutrons of energy from 1 MeV to 20 MeV

The characterization of fission-driven nuclear systems primarily relies on calculations of neutron-induced chain reactions, and these calculations require evaluated nuclear data as input. Calculation accuracy heavily depends on input nuclear data evaluation accuracy, and thus high precision on the experimental input to the nuclear data evaluation is essential for fundamental quantities like the energy spectrum of neutrons emitted from neutron-induced fission (i.e., the prompt fission neutron spectrum, PFNS). Despite decades of measurement efforts, prior to the measurements described in this work there were only three literature data sets for the 235 U(n,f) PFNS at incident neutron energies above 1.0 MeV considered reliable for inclusion in nuclear data evaluations and no reliable data sets above 3.0 MeV incident neutron energy. In this work we report on new measurements of the 235 U(n,f) PFNS spanning a grid of 1.0–20.0 MeV in incident neutron energy and 0.01–10.0 MeV in outgoing (PFNS) neutron energy. These measurements were carried out at the Weapons Neutron Research facility at the Los Alamos Neutron Science Center and used a multifoil parallel-plate avalanche counter target with both a Li-glass and a liquid scintillator detector array in separate experiments to span the quoted outgoing neutron energy ranges. The PFNS results are shown in terms of the energy spectra themselves as well as the average PFNS energy $(\langle{E}\rangle)$ and ratios of $\langle{E}\rangle$ at forward and backward angles. Here, the results are compared with literature data and selected nuclear data evaluations. Generally, the data agree with the ENDF/B-VIII.0 evaluation below 5.0-MeV incident neutron energy and more closely with the JEFF-3.3 evaluation above 5.0 MeV, though no evaluations considered for comparison in this work agree with the data across all of the incident and outgoing neutron energies shown, especially in regions where the third-chance fission process becomes available. Additionally, we show a ratio of the present PFNS results for 235 U(n, f) with a recent and highly correlated experiment to measure the 239 Pu(n, f) PFNS at the same experimental facility and with nearly identical equipment and analysis procedures. Many observations reported in this work are the first of their kind and represent significant advancements for knowledge of the 235 U(n, f) PFNS.

73 NUCLEAR PHYSICS AND RADIATION PHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2023

Evidence for ground-state electron capture of K 40

Potassium-40 is a widespread, naturally occurring isotope whose radioactivity impacts estimated geological ages spanning billions of years, nuclear structure theory, and subatomic rare-event searches—including those for dark matter and neutrinoless double-beta decay. The decays of this long-lived isotope must be precisely known for its use as a geochronometer, and to account for its presence in low-background experiments. There are several known decay modes for potassium-40, but a predicted electron-capture decay directly to the ground state of argon-40 has never been observed. The existence of this decay mode impacts several fields, while theoretical predictions span an order of magnitude. Here we report on the first, successful observation of this rare decay mode, obtained by the KDK (potassium decay) Collaboration using a novel combination of a low-threshold x-ray detector surrounded by a tonne-scale, high-efficiency γ -ray tagger at Oak Ridge National Laboratory. A blinded analysis reveals a distinctly nonzero ratio of intensities of ground-state electron-captures ( I EC 0 ) over excited-state ones ( I EC * ) of I EC 0 / I EC * = 0.0095 ± stat 0.0022 ± sys 0.0010 (68% CL), with the null hypothesis rejected at 4 σ [Stukel et al. , Phys. Rev. Lett. 131 , 052503 (2023) ]. In terms of branching ratio, this unambiguous signal yields I EC 0 = 0.098 % ± stat 0.023 % ± sys 0.010 % , roughly half of the commonly used prediction. This first observation of a third-forbidden unique electron capture improves our understanding of low-energy backgrounds in dark-matter searches and has implications for nuclear-structure calculations. For example, a shell-model based theoretical estimate for the neutrinoless double-beta decay half-life of calcium-48 is increased by a factor of 7 - 2 + 3 . Our nonzero measurement shifts geochronological ages by up to a percent; implications are illustrated for Earth and solar system chronologies.

73 NUCLEAR PHYSICS AND RADIATION PHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2024

Assay-based background projection for the Majorana Demonstrator using Monte Carlo uncertainty propagation

The background index (BI) is an important quantity to project and calculate the half-life sensitivity of neutrinoless double-𝛽 decay (0⁢𝜈⁢𝛽⁢𝛽) experiments. An analysis framework is presented to calculate the BI using the specific activities, masses, and simulated efficiencies of an experiments components as distributions. This Bayesian framework includes a unified approach to combine specific activities from assay. Monte Carlo uncertainty propagation is used to build a BI distribution from the specific activity, mass, and efficiency distributions. This method is applied to the M AJORANA D EMONSTRATOR , which deployed arrays of high-purity Ge detectors enriched in 76 Ge to search for 0⁢𝜈⁢𝛽⁢𝛽. The original assay-based projection is requantified in the new framework, using the as-built geometry of the Demonstrator and additional assay information. While 47% higher than the original projection, the resulting BI of [8.95±0.36]×10 −4 cts/(keVkgyr) from the 232 Th and 238 U decay chains does not account for the higher-than-expected BI observed by the D EMONSTRATOR . Finally, this method enables us to demonstrate the statistical incompatibility between the D EMONSTRATOR 's observed background and the assay results.

72 PHYSICS OF ELEMENTARY PARTICLES AND FIELDS↗
DOE OSTI2021

Search for double-β decay of 76 Ge to excited states of 76 Se with the Majorana Demonstrator

The M AJORANA DEMONSTRATOR is a neutrinoless double-β decay search consisting of a low-background modular array of high-purity germanium detectors, ~2/3 of which are enriched to 88% in 76 Ge. The experiment is also searching for double-beta decay of 76 Ge to excited states (e.s.) in 76 Se. 76 Ge can decay into three daughter states of 76 Se, with clear event signatures consisting of a ββ-decay followed by the prompt emission of one or two γ rays. This results with high probability in multi-detector coincidences. In this work, the granularity of the DEMONSTRATOR detector array enables powerful discrimination of this event signature from backgrounds. Using 41.9 kg yr of isotopic exposure, the DEMONSTRATOR has set world leading limits for each e.s. decay of 76 Ge, with 90% CL lower half-life limits in the range of (0.75–4.0) × 10 24 yr. In particular, for the 2ν transition to the first 0 + e.s. of 76 Se, a lower half-life limit of 7.5 × 10 23 yr at 90% CL was achieved.

59 ≤ A ≤ 89↗
DOE OSTI2026

Measurement of the Ground State Spin and Parity of 22 Al Disfavors Halo Formation

We report the decisive resolution of the ground state spin and parity of the proton–drip line nucleus 22 Al, a prime candidate for a proton halo. The resolution stems from the first 𝛽-delayed charged particle emission experiment in the gas stopping area at the Facility for Rare Isotope Beams (FRIB), leveraging high-intensity, low-energy beams extracted from the Advanced Cryogenic Gas Stopper (ACGS). The pristine beam quality from FRIB and the ACGS enabled a sensitive particle identification technique using thin silicon detectors, allowing for the suppression of the dominant proton background and the first observation of the weak 𝛽-delayed 𝛼 transition from the isobaric analog state in 22 Mg to the 18 Ne ground state. This observation uniquely fixes the 22 Al ground state as 4 + . The valence proton is confined by a dominant 𝑑-wave centrifugal barrier which, combined with the Coulomb repulsion, hinders the tunneling required for halo formation despite the exceptionally low proton separation energy of 22 Al.

20 ≤ A ≤ 38↗
DOE OSTI2025

High Resolution Fission Fragment Spectroscopy with Superconducting Microcalorimeters

Sub-1 AMU mass determination is important for determining fission yields and neutron multiplicity, which are necessary inputs for fission models. Fission models can improve spent nuclear waste stream analysis and nuclear fuel burnup determination. Here, to achieve this goal, we have used superconducting microcalorimeter detectors to directly measure the energy of fission fragments from the spontaneous fission of 252 Cf. With a fiber coupled LED pulser setup we demonstrate that we can reach a relative energy resolution of 0.1% and better for photon pulses with energies above 60 MeV. This instrument, in conjunction with time-of-flight (TOF) measurement, would allow for sub-1 atomic mass unit (AMU) mass determination of fission fragments in a future beamline application.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
DOE OSTI2020

Prompt-delayed γ-ray spectroscopy of neutron-rich 119.121 In isotopes

The Z = 50 shell closure, near N = 82, is unique in the sense that it is the only shell closure with the spin-orbit partner orbitals, π g 9 / 2 and π g 7 / 2 , enclosing the magic gap. The interaction of the proton hole/particle in the above-mentioned orbitals with neutrons in the νh 11/2 orbital is an important prerequisite to the understanding of the nuclear structure near N = 82 and the νπ interaction. To explore the structural similarity between the high-spin isomeric states in In ( Z = 49), Sn ( Z = 50), and Sb ( Z = 51) isotopes from a microscopic point of view. In addition, to understand the role of a proton hole or particle in the spin-orbit partner orbitals, π g 9 / 2 and π g 7 / 2 , respectively, with neutron holes in the ν h 11 / 2 orbital on these aforementioned isomers. The fusion and transfer induced fission reaction Be 9 ( U 238 , f ) with 6.2 MeV/u beam energy, using a unique setup consisting of AGATA, VAMOS++, and EXOGAM detectors, was used to populate through the fission process and study the neutron-rich In 119 , 121 isotopes. This setup enabled the prompt-delayed γ -ray spectroscopy of isotopes in the time range of 100 ns – 200 μ s . In the odd- A In 119 , 121 isotopes, indications of a short half-life 19/2 - isomeric state, in addition to the previously known 25/2 + isomeric state, were observed from the present data. Further, new prompt transitions above the 25/2 + isomer in In 121 were identified along with reevaluation of its half-life. The experimental data were compared with the theoretical results obtained in the framework of large-scale shell-model calculations in a restricted model space. Furthermore, the ( π g 9 / 2 ν h 11 / 2 ; I | H ^ | π g 9 / 2 ν h 11 / 2 ; I ) two-body matrix elements of residual interaction were modified to explain the excitation energies and the B ( E 2) transition probabilities in the neutron-rich In isotopes. The (i) decreasing trend of E (29/2 + ) - E (25/2 + ) in odd-In (with dominant configuration π g 9 / 2 - 1 ν h 11 / 2 - 2 and maximum aligned spin of 29/2 + ) and (ii) increasing trend of E (27/2 + ) - E (23/2 + ) in odd-Sb (with dominant configuration π g 7 / 2 + 1 ν h 11 / 2 - 2 and maximum aligned spin of 27/2 + ) with increasing neutron number could be understood as a consequence of hole-hole and particle-hole interactions, respectively.

73 NUCLEAR PHYSICS AND RADIATION PHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2025

Spatial variation of the low-temperature micro-photoluminescence of THM-grown CdZnTeSe

The quaternary compound CdZnTeSe (CZTS) has emerged as a next-generation detector material. Unlike CdZnTe (CZT), CZTS has the distinct advantages of little or no sub-grain boundary networks and a much lower concentration of Te inclusions, plus better compositional homogeneity. Thus, the material is expected to offer better spatial charge-transport homogeneity compared to CZT. However, an inhomogeneous distribution of point defects in both CZT and CZTS, such as Cd vacancies and residual impurities, can impose additional spatial inhomogeneity of the resistivity, carrier mobilities, and carrier lifetimes of the material. To investigate the spatial distribution of such defects in CZTS, low-temperature photoluminescence (PL) spectroscopic studies were performed at different positions along a single crystalline CZTS sample surface, which was grown by the traveling heater method (THM). In conclusion, the intensity variation of the PL emission of excitons bound to a neutral acceptor defect (A 0 , X), which is likely dominated by an acceptor like Cu-related level, with respect to the PL emission line from a neutral donor-bound exciton (D 0 , X) exhibited significant spatial variation, while the peak energy positions were approximately uniform due to the high compositional and bandgap homogeneity of the material.

II-VI semiconductor↗
DOE OSTI2025

Demonstration of a 1820 channel multiplexer for transition-edge sensor bolometers

The scalability of most transition-edge sensor arrays is limited by the multiplexing technology, which combines their signals over a reduced number of wires and amplifiers. Here, in this Letter, we present and demonstrate a multiplexer design optimized for transition-edge sensor bolometers with 1820 sensors per readout unit, a factor of two more than the previous state-of-the-art. The design is optimized for cosmic microwave background imaging applications, and it builds on previous microwave superconducting quantum interference device multiplexers by doubling the available readout bandwidth to the full 4–8 GHz octave. Evaluating the key performance metrics of yield, sensitivity, and crosstalk through laboratory testing, we find an end-to-end operable detector yield of 78%, a typical nearest-neighbor crosstalk amplitude of ∼0.4%, and a median white noise level of 83 pA/$\sqrt{\textrm{Hz}}$ due to the multiplexer, corresponding to an estimated contribution of 4% to the total system noise for a ground-based cosmic microwave background telescope. Additionally, we identify a possible path toward reducing resonator loss for future designs with reduced noise. We expect these developments to alleviate the system complexity, cryogenic requirements, and cost of future large arrays of low temperature detectors.

cosmic microwave background↗
DOE OSTI2026

Forward modeling approach to nuclear reaction cross sections: Applications in neutron inelastic scattering

The development of nuclear reaction models for the production of evaluated nuclear data has traditionally been performed by comparing measured cross sections with predictions from reaction model codes whose physical input parameters are adjusted to obtain the best agreement between measured and modeled results. To more directly probe reaction model inputs, this work introduces a forward modeling approach to experimental reaction cross-section determination, where the most important physical input parameters to reaction model calculations are obtained via 𝜒 2 minimization between measured and calculated observables. This was demonstrated using data collected by the Gamma Energy Neutron Energy Spectrometer for Inelastic Scattering (GENESIS) at the 88-inch cyclotron at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, a detection array consisting of organic liquid scintillators and high-purity germanium (HPGe) detectors. Using a broad-spectrum neutron beam and a 99.98%-enriched 56 Fe target, GENESIS was used to perform a simultaneous measurement of 56 Fe 𝛾-ray production cross sections and secondary neutron energy and angle distributions. The results of the forward modeling approach to the determination of energy-differential 𝛾-ray production cross sections for the yrast 4 + → 2 + and 6 + → 4 + transitions, as well as eight other off-yrast transitions, were compared against those obtained using conventional techniques, and the results are in good agreement. In addition to discrete 𝛾-ray yield total scattered neutron energy-angular distributions as a function of incident neutron energy were also obtained using forward modeling and found to agree with evaluated data, with the exception of elastic scattering at small angles. The fitted reaction model parameters obtained through forward modeling were also used to calculate the cross section for the unobserved (𝑛, 2⁢𝑛) reaction; excellent agreement with the current evaluation was obtained, providing a validation of the predictive capabilities of the forward model approach. This work bridges the gap between nuclear data experiment and evaluation by providing a new means for extracting inelastic neutron-scattering cross sections and neutron-induced 𝛾-ray production data while directly probing reaction model physics.

73 NUCLEAR PHYSICS AND RADIATION PHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2022

Test of nuclear decay rate variation due to an antineutrino flux

Unexplained variations of the decay rate parameter for weak interaction decays such as β ± decay, electron capture, as well as strong interaction α decay have been reported. Because these variations have been presented by a number of groups, at various locations, using various types of detectors, different isotopes, and over extended periods of time, some researchers have interpreted the source of these variations as not from ambient environmental factors such as temperature, pressure, and humidity but via an unexplained fundamental interaction. The state of decay rate parameter variations experiments is reviewed, and the reported results are placed into a common comparable context by defining a phenomenological cross section. After that we make decay parameter measurements as a function of time at the level of 10 -5 in the presences of an antineutrino flux with an on-off cycle time of ≈ 30 days. This level of precision requires a detailed understanding of both systematic and statistical errors; otherwise, systematic errors in the measurement may mimic the decay events of fundamental interactions. The experiment searched for variation of the $^{54}_{25}$Mn, e - capture decay rate parameter and $^{137}_{55}$Cs, β - decay rate parameter both to a level of precision of 1 part in ≈10 5 by comparing the difference between the decay rate in the presence of an antineutrino flux ≈ 3 x 10 12 $\bar{ν}$ cm -2 s -1 and no flux measurements. The experiment was located 6.53 m from the reactor core of the High Flux Isotope Reactor at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Two weak interaction decays, one via electron capture and the other via β - decay, were selected because the final state and the time reverse state each contain a neutrino and antineutrino, covering arguments that the antineutrino flux may interact differently or not at all in one of the cases. The $\gamma$ spectra from both decays were collected and analyzed independently. The measured variation in the decay rate parameters are found to be δλ/λ =(0.034 ± 1.38) x10 -5 for $^{54}_{25}$Mn and δλ/λ =(0.67±1.56) x10 -5 for $^{137}_{55}$Cs. These results are consistent with no measurable decay rate parameter variation due to an antineutrino flux, yielding a 68% confidence level upper limit sensitivity for $^{54}_{25}$Mn δλ/λ ≤ 1.31 x 10 -5 or σ ≤ 1.29 x10 -25 cm 2 in cross section and for $^{137}_{55}$Cs δλ/λ ≤ 2.23 x 10 -5 or σ ≤ 5.69 x10 -27 cm 2 . The cross-section upper limit obtained in these null or no observable effect measurements are ≈ 10 4 times more sensitive than past experiments reporting positive results in 54 Mn and 137 Cs. . .

73 NUCLEAR PHYSICS AND RADIATION PHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2025

Final Results of the M AJORANA D EMONSTRATOR ’s Search for Double-Beta Decay of 76 Ge to Excited States of 76 Se

76 Ge can 𝛽⁢𝛽 decay into three possible excited states of 76 Se , with the emission of two or, if the neutrino is Majorana, zero neutrinos. None of these six transitions have yet been observed. The M AJORANA D EMONSTRATOR was designed to study 𝛽⁢𝛽 decay of 76 Ge using a low background array of high purity germanium detectors. With 98.2 kg-y of isotopic exposure, the demonstrator sets the strongest half-life limits to date for all six transition modes. For 2⁢𝜈⁢𝛽⁢𝛽 to the 0$^+_1$ state of 76 Se , this search has begun to probe for the first time half-life values predicted using modern many-body nuclear theory techniques, setting a limit of 𝑇 1/2 > 1.5 × 10 24 y (90% CL).

Majorana neutrinos↗
DOE OSTI2025

Characterizing hole trap production due to proton irradiation in germanium cross-strip detectors

We present an investigation into the effects of high-energy proton damage on charge trapping in germanium cross-strip detectors with the goal of accomplishing three important measurements. First, we calibrated and characterized the spectral resolution of a spare COSI-balloon detector in order to determine the effects of intrinsic trapping, finding that electron trapping due to impurities dominates over hole trapping in the undamaged detector. Second, we performed two rounds of proton irradiation of the detector in order to quantify, for the first time, the rate at which charge traps are produced by proton irradiation. We find that the product of the hole trap density and cross-sectional area, [nσ] h , follows a linear relationship with the proton fluence, F p , with a slope of (5.4 ± 0.4) x 10 -11 cm/p + . Third, by utilizing our measurements of physical trapping parameters, we performed calibrations which corrected for the effects of trapping and mitigated degradation to the spectral resolution of the detector.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2021

On optical properties and scintillation performance of emerging Ga 2 O 3 : Crystal growth, emission mechanisms and doping strategies

As an emerging ultra-wide bandgap compound semiconductor, Ga 2 O 3 has attracted rapidly growing interest due to its unique physical properties for harsh condition applications. Compared to Ga 2 O 3 ’s electrical-characteristic based uses, such as power electronics, photodetectors and solar cells, a much less explored area for Ga 2 O 3 is its promising optical properties and its related scintillation capabilities. Undoped Ga 2 O 3 is a strong scintillator with excellent scintillation characteristics such as fast decay constants and encouraging light yield which is comparable to that of the classic Bi 4 Ge 3 O 12 (BGO) scintillator. The scintillation capability of Ga 2 O 3 can be precisely tuned via a series of approaches including systematic crystal growth control, post-growth annealing, targeted doping, and optimization of operation temperature. Here we summarize exciting progress of Ga 2 O 3 scintillators which have been pursued over the past few years. Our efforts cover a series of growth techniques of Ga 2 O 3 materials as well as discussion of emission mechanisms. Here we dedicate a targeted portion toward the doping strategies to improve the performance of Ga 2 O 3 . A detailed analysis is provided to compare the impact of different dopants. Through these efforts, we hope to provide useful perspectives to help accelerate the development of high performance Ga 2 O 3 scintillators.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2020

Thallium-based scintillators for high-resolution gamma-ray spectroscopy: Ce 3+ - doped Tl 2 LaCl 5 and Tl 2 LaBr 5

In this paper we report on the crystallographic and scintillation properties of Tl 2 LaCl 5 :Ce 3 + and Tl 2 LaBr 5 :Ce 3 + , two novel thallium-containing high-resolution scintillators for gamma-ray spectroscopy. Crystals of Tl 2 LaCl 5 :Ce 3 + and Tl 2 LaBr 5 :Ce 3 + were grown by the Vertical Bridgman method up to 1-inch diameter and 1-inch long. Single crystals of Tl 2 LaCl 5 :Ce 3 + and Tl 2 LaBr 5 :Ce 3 + belong to the orthorhombic system with space group 62 and have a density of 5.16 and 5.98 g/cm 3 , respectively. The scintillators show high light yields of up to 68,000 photons/MeV, excellent gamma-ray energy resolution of ≤ 3% at 662 keV, a fast scintillation decay, and a proportional response over a wide range of energies from 32 keV up to 1275 keV. Density Functional Theory calculations show that the Ce 3 + energy levels are inside the bandgap despite the smaller bandgap of Tl 2 LaCl 5 and Tl 2 LaBr 5 compared to K 2 LaCl 5 and K 2 LaBr 5 . Finally, a systematic Ce 3 + concentration study was performed for Tl 2 LaCl 5 :Ce 3 + and trends observed.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
DOE OSTI2021

Crystal growth, density functional theory, and scintillation properties of Tl 3 LnCl 6 :Ce 3+ and TlLn 2 Cl 7 :Ce 3+ (Ln = Y, Gd)

In this paper we report on the crystal growth, density functional theory (DFT) calculations and scintillation properties of Tl 3 LnCl 6 :Ce and TlLn 2 Cl 7 :Ce(Ln = Y, Gd). Crystals were grown by the Vertical Bridgman technique up to 16 mm in diameter and 25 mm long. Crystals of Tl 3 YCl 6 :Ce and Tl 3 GdCl 6 :Ce belong to the family of the Nesohalides which have the monoclinic crystal structure. Crystals of TlY 2 Cl 7 :Ce and TlGd 2 Cl 7 :Ce belong to the family of the Phyllohalides which have either the monoclinic or the orthorhombic crystal structure. We report the light yields of these Nesohalides and Phyllohalides are typically on the order of 35,000–40,000 ph/MeV.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗