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Interface structure of co-rotating interaction regions

Plasma and particle observations on Ulysses during its passes through the southern and northern heliosphere have revealed that, inside the streamer belt, the large-scale structure of the quiet global heliosphere is dominated by corotating interaction regions (CIRs). Therefore, considerable attention is now being given to the internal plasma structure of CIRs, and in particular, to the manifestations of the stream interfaces that should mark their origins as interactions between low speed solar wind (in the low-latitude streamer belt) and high speed solar wind (from the equatorial extensions of the high latitude polar coronal holes). The SWICS and HI-SCALE experiments on Ulysses combine plasma and energetic particle measurements that are of considerable utility for such studies because, between them, they cover the proton energy range from 10 eV to 5 MeV. These measurements are used, together with magnetic field data, to study the remarkable series of CIRs that occurred during the period beginning July 1992 and the end of 1993 as Ulysses rose from the ecliptic to a southern heliographic latitude of 48 deg. The structure of the regions between the forward and reverse shocks were previously analyzed in terms of the proton specific entropy argument log that should exhibit a discontinuous jump at the stream interface. It was claimed that the stream interface, defined with respect to specific entropy, is also associated with a discontinuity in energetic proton intensities. The energetic particle data (greater than 60 keV) and how they were ordered with respect to interfaces and with respect to the magnetic field were examined.

Ogilvie, K. W.↗

XTE J1946+274 = GRO J1944+26

C. A. Wilson, M. H. Finger, R. S. Wilson, and D. M. Scott, Marshall Space Flight Center, NASA, report for the BATSE team: "Pulsations from a previously-uncatalogued x-ray pulsar in the Vul-Cyg region have been detected with BATSE in the energy band 20-50 keV from Sept. 8 through Sept. 14. A preliminary location (95-percent confidence) is bounded by R.A. = 19h 34m to 19h 54m and Decl. = +22o.5 to +30o.5 (equinox 2000.0). GRO J1944+26 rose from a 20-50-keV rms pulsed flux of < 15 mCrab on Sept. 7 to 27 +/- 3 mCrab on Sept. 13. Observations between Sept. 8 and 14 are consistent with a barycentric pulse frequency of 0.06315331 (6) Hz on Sept. 11.0 UT, with a frequency derivative of 2.2(2) x 10(exp -12) Hz/s. The pulse profile in the band 20-50 keV has a single asymmetric peak.

Smith, D. A.↗

A Flexible Statechart-to-Model-Checker Translator

Many current-day software design tools offer some variant of statechart notation for system specification. We, like others, have built an automatic translator from (a subset of) statecharts to a model checker, for use to validate behavioral requirements. Our translator is designed to be flexible. This allows us to quickly adjust the translator to variants of statechart semantics, including problem-specific notational conventions that designers employ. Our system demonstration will be of interest to the following two communities: (1) Potential end-users: Our demonstration will show translation from statecharts created in a commercial UML tool (Rational Rose) to Promela, the input language of Holzmann's model checker SPIN. The translation is accomplished automatically. To accommodate the major variants of statechart semantics, our tool offers user-selectable choices among semantic alternatives. Options for customized semantic variants are also made available. The net result is an easy-to-use tool that operates on a wide range of statechart diagrams to automate the pathway to model-checking input. (2) Other researchers: Our translator embodies, in one tool, ideas and approaches drawn from several sources. Solutions to the major challenges of statechart-to-model-checker translation (e.g., determining which transition(s) will fire, handling of concurrent activities) are retired in a uniform, fully mechanized, setting. The way in which the underlying architecture of the translator itself facilitates flexible and customizable translation will also be evident.

Rouquette, Nicolas↗

Iron, Manganese and Copper Release from Synthetic Hydroxyapatite

Kinetic stir-flow dissolution experiments were performed on iron- (Fe-SHA), manganese- (Mn-SHA), and copper- (Cu-SHA) containing synthetic hydroxyapatites. Solution treatments consisted of de-ionized water, citric acid and DTPA. Initially, Mn concentrations were higher than Cu concentrations and Fe concentrations were the lowest in all treatments. At later times Mn and Cu concentrations dropped in the DTPA treatment while Fe rose to the concentration similar to Mn and Cu. At all times, metal release concentrations in the water and citric acid treatments followed the trend of Mn>Cu>Fe. Rietveld analysis of x-ray diffraction data and ^31P NMR indicated that the metals substituted for Ca in the SHA structure. However, EPR data suggested that a metal (hydr)oxide phase existed either on the SHA surface or between the SHA crystallites. The metal concentration trend of Mn>Cu>Fe suggested that the initial solution metal concentrations are dependent on the dissolution of (hydr)oxides from SHA surfaces or between SHA crystallites. Similar metal concentrations at later times in the DTPA experiments suggests that metal concentrations were controlled by the release of Mn, Cu, or Fe from the SHA structure.

Sutter, B.↗

The Precambrian Biogeochemical Carbon Isotopic Record: Contributions of Thermal Versus Biological Processes

Superplumes offer a new approach for understanding global C cycles. Isotopes help to discern the impacts of geological, environmental and biological processes ujpun the evolution of these cycles. For example, C-13/C-12 values of coeval sedimentary organics and carbonates give global estimates of the fraction of C buried as organics (Forg), which today lies near 0.2. Before Oxygenic photosynthesis arose, our biosphere obtained reducing power for biosynthesis solely from thermal volatiles and rock alteration. Thus Forg was dominated by the mantle redox state, which has remained remarkably constant for greater than Gy. Recent data confirm that the long-term change in Forg had been small, indicating that the mantle redox buffer remains important even today. Oxygenic photosynthesis enabled life to obtain additional reducing power by splitting the water molecule. Accordingly, biological organic production rose above the level constrained by the mantle-derived flux of reduced species. For example, today, chemoautotrophs harvesting energy from hydrothermal emanations can synthesize at most between 0.2 x 10(exp 12) and 2x 10(exp 12) mol C yr-1 of organic C globally. In contrast, global photosynthetic productivity is estimated at 9000 x 10(exp 12) mol C yr-1. Occasionally photosynthetic productivity did contribute to dramatically -elevated Forg values (to 0.4 or more) as evidenced by very high carbonate C-13/C-12. The interplay between biological, tectonic and other environmental factors is illustrated by the mid-Archean to mid-Proterozoic isotopic record. The relatively constant C-13/C-12 values of Archean carbonates support the view that photosynthetically-driven Forg increases were not yet possible. In contrast, major excursions in C-13/C-12, and thus also in Forg, during the early Proterozoic confirmed the global importance of oxygenic photosynthesis by that time. Remarkably, the superplume event at 1.9 Ga did not trigger another major Forg increase, despite the favorable conditions for organic burial that were evidenced by elevated sea levels and higher black shale abundances. Perhaps those superplume-rated processes that favored enhanced organic burial were offset by the ability of mantle-derived redox buffering, which was enhanced during the superplume event, to limit excursions in Forg.

DesMarais, David J.↗

The End of Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9

The pieces of the former Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 struck Jupiter during the week of July 16-22 1994. We divide the general impact phenomena into four phases: (1) Atmospheric entry should have been accompanied by an entry flash, probably only detectable by the Galileo spacecraft. (2) Aerodynamic forces cause the impactor to explode. We show that the apparent altitude of the explosions is consistent with the analytical model proposed by Zahnle and Chyba et al, with numerical models calculated by Mac Low and Zahnle and Yabe et al., and with dynamically-based estimates of fragment masses Suggested by Scotti and Melosh and Asphaug and Benz. (3) The explosion produces a fireball that propagates most quickly up the wake, as predicted by Takata et al. and Crawford et al. The fireball's luminosity fades over a timescale of 30-60 seconds. (4) Each explosion produced a plume that reached thousands of kilometers above the cloud-tops. The plumes appear to have been dusty and SO illuminated when they reached sunlight. The plumes rose and fell over a period of ten or twenty minutes, governed by the simple laws of ballistics. When plume material (dust) fell back on the atmosphere it was reheated and glowed brightly in the thermal infrared for a period of order ten to twenty minutes; a large fraction of the impact energy was spent thus. Geometry introduces additional factors that complicate interpretation of the observed light curves.

Zahnle, K. J.↗

Tracking Virtual Trajectories

Current models of smooth pursuit eye movements assume that it is largely driven by retinal image motion. We tested this hypothesis by measuring pursuit of elliptical motion (3.2s, 0.9 Hz, 1.4 deg x 1.6 deg, 4 randomly interleaved phases) of either a small spot ("real" motion) or of a line-figure diamond viewed through apertures such that only the motion of four isolated oblique line segments was visible ("virtual" motion). Each segment moved sinusoidally along a linear trajectory yet subjects perceived a diamond moving along an elliptical path behind the aperture. We found, as expected, that real motion produced accurate tracking (N = 2) with mean gain (over horizontal and vertical) of 0.9, mean phase of -6 deg (lag), mean relative phase (H vs V) of 90 +/- 8 deg (RMS error). Virtual motion behind an X-shaped aperture (N= 4 with one naive) yielded a mean gain of 0.7, mean phase of -11 deg, mean relative phase of 87 +/- 15 deg. We also measured pursuit with the X-shaped aperture using a higher segment luminance which prevents the segments from being grouped into a coherently moving diamond while keeping the motion otherwise identical. In this incoherent case, the same four subjects no longer showed consistent elliptical tracking (RMS error in relative phase rose to 60 deg) suggesting that perceptual coherence is critical. Furthermore, to rule out tracking of the centroid, we also used vertical apertures so that all segment motion was vertical (N = 3). This stimulus still produced elliptical tracking (mean relative phase of 84 +/- 19 deg), albeit with a lower gain (0.6). These data show that humans can track moving objects reasonably accurately even when the trajectory can only be derived by spatial integration of motion signals. Models that merely seek to minimize retinal or local stimulus motion cannot explain these results.

Stone, Leland S.↗

Ring Bubbles of Dolphins

The article discusses how dolphins create and play with three types of air-filled vortices. The underlying physics is discussed. Photographs and sketches illustrating the dolphin's actions and physics are presented. The dolphins engage in this behavior on their own initiative without food reward. These behaviors are done repeatedly and with singleminded effort. The first type is the ejection of bubbles which, after some practice on the part of the dolphin, turn into toroidal vortex ring bubbles by the mechanism of baroclinic torque. These bubbles grow in radius and become thinner as they rise vertically to the surface. One dolphin would blow two in succession and guide them to fuse into one. Physicists call this a vortex reconnection. In the second type, the dolphins first create an invisible vortex ring in the water by swimming on their side and waving their tail fin (also called flukes) vigorously. This vortex ring travels horizontally in the water. The dolphin then turns around, finds the vortex and injects a stream of air into it from its blowhole. The air "fills-out" the core of the vortex ring. Often, the dolphin would knock-off a smaller ring bubble from the larger ring (this also involves vortex reconnection) and steer the smaller ring around the tank. One other dolphin employed a few other techniques for planting air into the fluke vortex. One technique included standing vertically in the water with tail-up, head-down and tail piercing the free surface. As the fluke is waved to create the vortex ring, air is entrained from above the surface. Another technique was gulping air in the mouth, diving down, releasing air bubbles from the mouth and curling them into a ring when they rose to the level of the fluke. In the third type, demonstrated by only one dolphin, the longitudinal vortex created by the dorsal fin on the back is used to produce 10-15 foot long helical bubbles. In one technique she swims in a curved path. This creates a dorsal fin vortex since centrifugal force has to be balanced by a lift-like force. She then re-traces her path and injects air into the vortex from her blowhole. She can even make a ring reconnect from the helix. In the second technique, demonstrated a few times, she again swims in a curved path, releases a cloud or group of bubbles from her blowhole and turns sharply away (Which presumably strengthens the vortex). As the bubbles encounter the vortex, they travel to the center of the vortex, merge and, in a flash, elongate along the core of the vortex. In all the three types, the air-water interface is shiny smooth and stable because the pressure gradient in the vortex flow around the bubble stabilizes it. A lot of the interesting physics still remains to be explored.

Shariff, Karim↗

Ejecta Pattern of the Impact of Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9

The collision of Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 (SL 9) with Jupiter created crescent-shaped ejecta patterns around impact sites. Although the observed impact plumes rose through a similar height of approx.3000 km, the radii of the created ejects patterns differ from impact to impact and generally are larger for larger impacts. The azimuthal angle of the symmetry axis of the ejects pattern is larger than that predicted by the models of oblique impacts, due to the action of the Coriolis force that rotates ejecta patterns counterclockwise from the south. We study the formation of ejects patterns using a simple model of ballistic plume above a rotating plane. The ejected particles follow ballistic trajectories and slide horizontally for about an hour after reentry into the jovian atmosphere. The lateral expansion of the plume is stopped by the friction force, which is assumed to be proportional to the square of the horizontal velocity. Two different mass-velocity distributions used in the simulations produce qualitatively similar results. The simulated ejecta patterns fit very well the "crescents" observed at the impact sites. The sizes and azimuthal angles of symmetry axis of ejects patterns depend on a parameter L, which has dimension of length and is related to the mass of the fragment. Thus more massive impacts produce larger ejects patterns that are rotated through a wider angle.

Pankine, Alexey A.↗

STS-107 Flight Day 8 Highlights

This video shows the activities of the STS-107 crew (Rick Husband, Commander; William McCool, Pilot; Kalpana Chawla, David Brown, Michael Anderson, Laurel Clark, Mission Specialists, Ilan Ramon, Payload Specialist) during flight day 8 of the Columbia orbiter's final flight. The primary activities of flight day 8 are spaceborne experiments. Some background information is given on the SOFBALL (Structure of Flame Balls at Low Lewis-Number) microgravity experiment as footage of the flame balls is shown. The video also shows the MEIDEX (Mediterranean Israeli Dust Experiment) calibrating on the Moon. The six STARS (Space Technology and Research Students) international student experiments are profiled, including experiments on carpenter bees (Liechtenstein), spiders (Australia), silkworms (China), ants (United States), crystal growth (Israel), and fish embryos (Japan). A commercial experiment on roses is also profiled. Astronaut Clark gives a tour of the SpaceHab RDM (Research Double Module), in the space shuttle's payload bay. Astronauts McCool and Ramon take turns on an exercise machine. The video includes a partly cloudy view of the Pacific Ocean.

Source record↗

STS-107 Flight Day 9 Highlights

This video shows the activities of the STS-107 crew (Rick Husband, Commander; William McCool, Pilot; Kalpana Chawla, David Brown, Michael Anderson, Laurel Clark, Mission Specialists; Ilan Ramon, Payload Specialist) during flight day 9 of the Columbia orbiter's final flight. The primary activities of flight day 9 are spaceborne experiments. The video shows a commercial experiment on roses, a partial view of Africa from Libya to the Horn of Africa through the MEIDEX (Mediterranean Israeli Dust Experiment), and the FAST (Facility for Absorption and Surface Tension) experiment. The STARS (Space Technology and Research Students) international student experiments are shown. The preliminary results of these experiments on the effects of microgravity on silkworms, spiders, crystal growth, fish embryos, carpenter bees, and ants are discussed. The video includes a view of southern Spain and the Mediterranean Sea.

Source record↗

STS-107 Flight Day 13 Highlights

This video shows the activities of the STS-107 crew on flight day 13 of the Columbia orbiter's final mission. The crew members include: Rick Husband, Commander; William McCool, Pilot; Kalpana Chawla, David Brown, Michael Anderson, Laurel Clark, Mission Specialists; Ilan Ramon, Payload Specialist. The primary activities of flight day 13 are spaceborne experiments, including troubleshooting undertaken by Mission Specialist Chawla on the Water Mist Fire Suppression (MIST) experiment. Chawla performs troubleshooting tasks relayed to her by Mission Control. She shows Mission Control the location of air and water in a transparent hose that is part of the atomizer on the exterior of the combustion module. She also changes the atomizer head. All six Space Technology and Research Students (STARS) experiments are profiled in the video. These experiments are on ants, crystal growth in a chemical garden, fish embryos, carpenter bees, spiders, and silkworms. The video also includes a view of the southeast Texas coast near Houston, and a view of Portugal, Spain, Gibraltar, Morocco, and the Sahara Desert. The video ends with an explanation of roses at Mission Control which commemorate astronauts who have died on missions.

Source record↗

Two Components in Major Solar Particle Events

A study has been made of 29 intense, solar particle events observed in the energy range 25-100 MeV/nuc near Earth in the years 1997 through 2001. It is found that the majority of the events (19/29) had Fe to O ratios which were reasonably constant with time and energy, and with values above coronal. These all originated on the Sun s western hemisphere and most had intensities that rose rapidly at the time of an associated flare, and coronal mass ejection (CME), and then decayed more gradually. Few interplanetary shocks were observed during these increases. The spectra were mainly power laws. The remaining 10 events had different intensity-time profiles and Fe to O ratios that varied with time and energy with values at or below coronal. Most of these originated near central meridian and 6 had strong interplanetary shocks that were observed near Earth. In general the spectra were not power laws but steepened at high energies, particularly for Fe. There were four events with two peaks in the intensity-time profiles, the first near the time of the associated flare and the other at shock passage. The results, considered in the light of other recent work, suggest that the high energy particles that occur shortly after flares are indeed flare particles. At the highest rigidities considered here shock-accelerated particles are uncommon and are observed only in association with unusually fast shocks.

White, Nicholas E.↗

RHESSI Observations of Flares During the Storms Period from 14 to 24 April 2002

The Reuven Ramaty High Energy Solar Spectroscopic Imager (RHESSI) observes X-rays and gamma rays from solar flares in the energy range from 3 keV to 17 MeV with a duty cycle of about 50%. The RHESSI observations of the flares during the Storms Workshop period from 14 to 24 April, 2002, will be reviewed. Many Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites (GOES) C- and M-class flares were observed including the M2.6 flare on 17 April that was followed by a Coronal Mass Ejection (CME). The X1.5 flare on 21 April was particularly well observed with RHESSI in X-rays from its start at 00:40 UT until 01:33 UT on the first orbit, just before the soft X-ray peak. Footpoint emission was detected to energies as high as 200 keV, and a spatially-separated coronal source was identified at energies below about 30 keV. The coronal X-ray source was followed for over 12 more hours on subsequent orbits as it gradually rose to over 130,000 km above the limb. The X-ray images and spectra of this flare will be presented in relation to the Transitional Region and Coronal Explorer (TRACE) images in the 195-angstrom band and the Large Angle and Spectrometric Coronagraph Experiment (LASCO) images of the associated CME.

Rabin, Douglas↗

Planning Systems for Distributed Operations

This viewgraph representation presents an overview of the mission planning process involving distributed operations (such as the International Space Station (ISS)) and the computer hardware and software systems needed to support such an effort. Topics considered include: evolution of distributed planning systems, ISS distributed planning, the Payload Planning System (PPS), future developments in distributed planning systems, Request Oriented Scheduling Engine (ROSE) and Next Generation distributed planning systems.

Maxwell, Theresa G.↗

Evidence for Gradual External Reconnection Before Explosive Eruption of a Solar Filament

We observe a slowly-evolving quiet region solar eruption of 1999 April 18, using EUV images from the EUV Imaging Telescope (EIT) on the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO), and soft X-ray images from the Soft X-ray Telescope (SXT) on Yohkoh. Using difference images, where an early image is subtracted from later images, we examine dimmings and brightenings in the region for evidence of the eruption mechanism. A filament rose slowly at about 1 kilometer per second for six hours before being rapidly ejected at about 16 kilometers per second, leaving flare brightenings and post-flare loops in its wake. Magnetograms from the Michelson Doppler Imager (MDI) on SOHO show that the eruption occurred in a large quadrupo1ar magnetic region, with the filament located on the neutral line of the quadrupole's central inner lobe, between the inner two of the four polarity domains. In step with the slow rise, subtle EIT dimmings commence and gradually increase over the two polarity domains on one side of the filament, i.e. in some of the loops of one of the two side lobes of the quadrupole. Concurrently, soft X-ray brightenings gradually increase in both side lobes. Both of these effects suggest heating in the side-lobe magnetic arcades, which gradually increase over several hours before the fast eruption. Also during the slow pre-eruption phase, SXT dimmings gradually increase in the feet and legs of the central lobe, indicating expansion of the central-lobe magnetic arcade enveloping the filament. During the rapid ejection, these dimmings rapidly grow in darkness and in area, especially in the ends of the sigmoid field that erupts with the filament, and flare brightenings begin underneath the fast-moving but still low-altitude filament. We consider two models for explaining the eruption: "breakout," which says that reconnection occurs high above the filament prior to eruption, and tether cutting, which says that the eruption is unleashed by reconnection beneath the filament. The pre-eruption evolution is consistent with gradual breakout that led to (and perhaps caused) the fast eruption. Tether-cutting reconnection below the filament begins early in the rapid ejection, but our data are not complete enough to determine whether this reconnection began early enough to be the cause of the fast-phase onset. Thus, our observations are consistent with gradual breakout reconnection causing the long slow rise of the filament, but allow the cause of the sudden onset of the explosive fast phase to be either a jump in the breakout reconnection rate or the onset of runaway tether-cutting reconnection, or both.

Sterling, Alphonse C.↗

Northwest Africa 773: Lunar Mare Breccia with a Shallow-formed Olivine-Cumulate Component, Very-Low-Ti Heritage, and a KREEP Connection

Northwest Africa 773 is one of the more unusual lunar meteorites found in recent years because it contains a prominent clast lithology, which appears to be an olivine-rich cumulate and because it is a very-low-Ti (VLT) mare breccia with relatively high incompatible-trace-element concentrations and LREE/HREE enrichment. A lunar origin was verified by Fagan and coworkers on the basis of noble-gas contents, oxygen isotopes, and mineral compositions. Fagan et al. described two lithologies: (1) heterolithic impact breccia with a regolith component and (2) cumulus olivine gabbronorite. Here, we refer to these as the breccia (Bx) lithology and the olivine-cumulate (OC) lithology. The impact breccia components are predominantly volcanic (basaltic), and, in this context, the occurrence of the cumulus lithology is especially significant: is it related to the volcanic components or does it represent a deep-seated rock entrained by the basaltic magma as it rose to the surface? Elevated incompatible-element concentrations with more or less KREEP-like inter-element ratios and very-low-Ti concentrations distinguish both lithologies of this meteorite from Apollo mare basalts. Here, we summarize key compositional information (bulk and mineral), especially related to the OC lithology, to show that it formed at shallow depth and comes from a VLT ultramafic precursor that mixed with a KREEP-like trace-element component deep in the crust or upper mantle.

Jolliff, B. L.↗

Evidence for Gradual External Reconnection Before Explosive Eruption of a Solar Filament

We observe a slowly evolving quiet-region solar eruption of 1999 April 18, using extreme-ultraviolet (EUV) images from the EUV Imaging Telescope (EIT) on the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO) and soft X-ray images from the Soft X-ray Telescope (SXT) on Yohkoh. Using difference images, in which an early image is subtracted from later images, we examine dimmings and brightenings in the region for evidence of the eruption mechanism. A filament rose slowly at about 1 km/s for 6 hours before being rapidly ejected at about 16 km/s leaving flare brightenings and postflare loops in its wake. Magnetograms from the Michelson Doppler Imager (MDI) on SOHO show that the eruption occurred in a large quadrupolar magnetic region with the filament located on the neutral line of the quadrupole s central inner lobe between the inner two of the four polarity domains. In step with the slow rise, subtle EIT dimmings commence and gradually increase over the two polarity domains on one side of the filament, i.e., in some of the loops of one of the two sidelobes of the quadrupole. Concurrently, soft X-ray brightenings gradually increase in both sidelobes. Both of these effects suggest heating in the sidelobe magnetic arcades. which gradually increase over several hours before the fast eruption. Also, during the slow pre- eruption phase, SXT dimmings gradually increase in the feet and legs of the central lobe, indicating expansion of the central-lobe magnetic arcade enveloping the filament. During the rapid ejection. these dimmings rapidly grow in darkness and in area, especially in the ends of the sigmoid field that erupts with the filament. and flare brightenings begin underneath the fast-moving but still low-altitude filament. We consider two models for explaining the eruption: "breakout. which says that reconnection occurs high above the filament prior to eruption, and tether cutting, which says that the eruption is unleashed by reconnection beneath the filament. The pre-eruption evolution is consistent with gradual breakout that led to (and perhaps caused) the fast eruption. Tether-cutting reconnection below the filament begins early in the rapid ejection. but our data are not complete enough to determine whether this reconnection began early enough to be the cause of the fast-phase onset. Thus, our observations are consistent with gradual breakout reconnection causing the long slow rise of the filament, but allow the cause of the sudden onset of the explosive fast phase to be either a jump in the breakout reconnection rate or the onset of runaway tether-cutting reconnection. or both.

Sterling, Alphonse C.↗