Power systems for the Apollo Applications Program.
Fuel cell /battery and solar array/ battery systems for manned Apollo Applications Program /AAP/ space vehicles, considering mission and power requirements
Daubert, D. L.↗
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Space propulsion systems. Present performance limits and application and development trends
Typical spaceflight programs and their propulsion requirements as a comparison for possible propulsion systems are summarized. Chemical propulsion systems, solar, nuclear, or even laser propelled rockets with electrical or direct thermal fuel acceleration, nonrockets with air breathing devices and solar cells are considered. The chemical launch vehicles have similar technical characteristics and transportation costs. A possible improvement of payload by using air breathing lower stages is discussed. The electrical energy supply installations which give performance limits of electrical propulsion and the electrostatic ion propulsion systems are described. The development possibilities of thermal, magnetic, and electrostatic rocket engines and the state of development of the nuclear thermal rocket and propulsion concepts are addressed.
Buehler, R. D.↗
Thermal Analysis on Cryogenic Liquid Hydrogen Tank on an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle System
Thermal analyses are performed on the liquid hydrogen (LH2) tank designed for an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) powered by solar arrays and a regenerative proton-exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell. A 14-day cruise mission at a 65,000 ft altitude is considered. Thermal analysis provides the thermal loads on the tank system and the boiling-off rates of LH2. Different approaches are being considered to minimize the boiling-off rates of the LH2. It includes an evacuated multilayer insulation (MLI) versus aerogel insulation on the LH2 tank and aluminum versus stainless steel spacer rings between the inner and outer tank. The resulting boil-off rates of LH2 provided by the one-dimensional model and three-dimensional finite element analysis (FEA) on the tank system are presented and compared to validate the results of the three-dimensional FEA. It concludes that heat flux through penetrations by conduction is as significant as that through insulation around the tank. The tank system with MLI insulation and stainless steel spacer rings result in the lowest boiling-off rate of LH2.
Wang, Xiao-Yen↗
Model Validation and Demonstration of a Hydrogen Fuel Cell Parcel Delivery Truck
With an emphasis on reducing fossil fuel consumption and emissions, major delivery service corporations have begun deploying and operating Class 6 battery electric delivery vans. Fuel cell hybrid delivery vans offer a zero emissions solution with extended range and route planning flexibility. This paper follows a prior publication [1] on the vehicle modeling and design and presents demonstration data and a validation of the prior modeling and design effort. Here, the validation exercise shows that the modeling tools predict performance and energy efficiency within 5% for most of the routes, while the demonstration data shows that in service operation fuel economy was over 14 km/kg of hydrogen gas. In addition, results from a range test showed the vehicle design and onboard hydrogen storage was able to surpass the design target range of 200 km.
08 HYDROGEN↗
Fuel cell technology program contract summary report
A fuel cell technology program which was established to advance the state-of-the-art of hydrogen-oxygen fuel cells using the P and WA PC8B technology as the base is reported. The major tasks of this program consisted of (1) fuel cell system studies of a space shuttle powerplant conceptual design (designated engineering model -1, EM-1) supported by liaison with the space shuttle prime contractors; (2) component and subsystem technology advancement and; (3) a demonstrator powerplant test. Fuel cell system studies, with the EM-1 as the focal point of design activities, included determination of voltage regulation, specific reactant consumption, weight, voltage level and performance characteristics. These studies provided the basis for coordination activities with the space shuttle vehicle prime contractor. Interface information, on-board checkout and in-flight monitoring requirements, and development cost data were also provided as part of this activity. Even though the two vehicles primes had different voltage requirements (115 volts in one case and 28 volts in the other), it was concluded that either option could be provided in the fuel cell power system by the electrical hook-up of the cells in the stack.
Source record↗
High energy efficiency and high power density proton exchange membrane fuel cells: Electrode kinetics and mass transport
The development of proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell power plants with high energy efficiencies and high power densities is gaining momentum because of the vital need of such high levels of performance for extraterrestrial (space, underwater) and terrestrial (power source for electric vehicles) applications. Since 1987, considerable progress has been made in achieving energy efficiencies of about 60 percent at a current density of 200 mA/sq cm and high power densities (greater than 1 W/sq cm) in PEM fuel cells with high (4 mg/sq cm) or low (0.4 mg/sq cm) platinum loadings in electrodes. The following areas are discussed: (1) methods to obtain these high levels of performance with low Pt loading electrodes - by proton conductor impregnation into electrodes, localization of Pt near front surface; (2) a novel microelectrode technique which yields electrode kinetic parameters for oxygen reduction and mass transport parameters; (3) demonstration of lack of water transport from anode to cathode; (4) modeling analysis of PEM fuel cell for comparison with experimental results and predicting further improvements in performance; and (5) recommendations of needed research and development for achieving the above goals.
Supramaniam Srinivasan↗
Anaconda Metal Flex Hose vacuum jacketed 3/4-inch I.D. by 5 ft. long, Anaconda part number 83986, NASA drawing number 75M12944 FVJH-3 Test report
Function and strength testing of liquid hydrogen metal flex hose for service module fuel cell of Saturn IB program
SATURN IB LAUNCH VEHICLE↗
Mars manned transportation vehicle
A viable power system technology for a surface transportation vehicle to explore the planet Mars is presented. A number of power traction systems were investigated, and it was found that a regenerative hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell appears to be attractive for a manned Mars rover application. Mission requirements were obtained from the Manned Mars Mission Working Group. Power systems weights, power, and reactants requirements were determined as a function of vehicle weights for vehicles weighing from 6,000 to 16,000 lb (2,722 to 7,257 kg), (Earth weight). The vehicle performance requirements were: velocity, 10 km/hr; range, 100 km; slope climbing capability, 30 deg uphill for 50 km; mission duration, 5 days; and crew, 5. Power requirements for the operation of scientific equipment and support system capabilities were also specified and included in this study. The concept developed here would also be applicable to a Lunar based vehicle for Lunar exploration. The reduced gravity on the Lunar surface, (over that on the Martian surface), would result in an increased range or capability over that of the Mars vehicle since many of the power and energy requirements for the vehicle are gravity dependent.
Perez-Davis, Marla E.↗
Mars manned transportation vehicle
A viable power system technology for a surface transportation vehicle to explore the planet Mars is presented. A number of power traction systems were investigated, and it was found that a regenerative hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell appears to be attractive for a manned Mars rover application. Mission requirements were obtained from the Manned Mars Mission Working Group. Power systems weights, power, and reactants requirements were determined as a function of vehicle weights for vehicles weighting from 6,000 to 16,000 lb (2,722 to 7,257 kg), (Earth weight). The vehicle performance requirements were: velocity, 10 km/hr; range, 100 km; slope climbing capability, 30 deg uphill for 50 km; mission duration, 5 days; and crew, 5. Power requirements for the operation of scientific equipment and support system capabilities were also specified and included in this study. The concept developed here would also be applicable to a Lunar based vehicle for Lunar exploration. The reduced gravity on the Lunar surface, (over that on the Martian surface), would result in an increased range or capability over that of the Mars vehicle since many of the power and energy requirements for the vehicle are gravity dependent.
Perez-Davis, Marla E.↗
Adhesion of Titanium Coatings on Additively Manufactured Stainless Steel
The ongoing global climate change crisis has brought attention to the urgent need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from vehicles by providing alternative zero-emission fueling technologies. Prevailing vehicles are dependent on fossil fuels and contribute to climate change by creating emissions of carbon dioxide. In 2019, transportation was the largest contributing economic sector to the U.S. greenhouse gas emissions total at 29% [1]. By converting vehicle fueling to an alternative method, major reductions in greenhouse gas emissions can be achieved. Hydrogen fuel cells are one potential alternative capable of generating electricity from hydrogen while emitting only water. Several obstacles hinder the development of hydrogen fuel cells as a viable alternative, including the manufacturability of bipolar plates.
08 HYDROGEN↗
Proton exchange membrane fuel cells
Disclosed embodiments concern a membrane electrode assembly or a proton exchange membrane fuel cell comprising a phosphoric acid-doped polymeric membrane comprising a cationic functional group, such as an assembly or fuel cell having an ion exchange capacity of 0.8 to 3 mmol/gram and an operating temperature range of from 80° C. to 220° C. The cationic functional group can be any suitable functional group, such as ammonium, imidazolium, guanidinium, phosphazenium, sulfonium, oxonium, and phosphonium, with working embodiments typically using quaternary ammonium cationic functional groups tethered to the polymeric core. The polymeric material may be any suitable polymeric material, such as a material selected from polyaryl polymers, polyarylamides, polyimides, polystyrenes, polysulfones, polyethers, polyether sulfones, polyketones, polyetherketones, polyarylethers, polyolefins, and polynitriles. The membrane electrode assembly or a proton exchange membrane fuel cell can be used in any application now known or hereafter developed, such as a vehicle or a stationary power device.
30 DIRECT ENERGY CONVERSION↗
The Future of Renewable Energy Transmission: An Autonomous Energy Grid
The drastic price reduction in variable renewable energy, such as wind and solar, coupled with the ease of use of smart technologies at the consumer level, is driving dramatic changes to the power system that will significantly transform how power is made, delivered, and used. Distributed energy resources (DERs)—which can include solar photovoltaic (PV), fuel cells, microturbines, gensets, distributed energy storage (e.g., batteries, ice storage), and new loads (e.g., electric vehicles (EVs), light-emitting diode (LED) lighting, smart appliances, and electric heat pumps)—are being added to electric grids and causing bidirectional power flows and voltage fluctuations that can impact optimal control and system operation. Residential solar installations, customer battery systems, and EVs are all seeing rapid increases in deployments. With DER seeing such increased use, it is not unreasonable to imagine a residential electricity customer having at least five controllable DERs. In future electric grids, as more DERs are integrated, the number of active control points will be too much for current control approaches to effectively manage.
30 DIRECT ENERGY CONVERSION↗
A highly stable Cu(OH) 2 -Poly(vinyl alcohol) nanocomposite membrane for dramatically enhanced direct borohydride fuel cell performance
Nano-additive aggregation, limited performance, and unclear modification mechanisms are the main obstacles in developing nanocomposite anion exchange membranes (AEMs). In this work, for the first time, an effective and highly stable Poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA)-based AEMs with dispersive Cu(OH)$_2$ nanoclusters (Cu-AEMs) are prepared by a simple and eco-friendly three-step method: ‘CuCl$_2$ doping-casting-KOH immersing’. The doped Cu$^{2+}$ ions chemically combine with OH- ions to form anionic conductive Cu(OH)2 nanoclusters intermediated by attaching resins. The PVA skeletons wrap around Cu(OH)$_2$ while the hydroxyl groups expose to bulk water, forming Cu(OH)$_2$-PVA complex, which avoids nano-additive aggregation, increases anionic channels, and strengthens additive-matrix connection. A direct borohydride fuel cell using Cu-AEM with 0.56 wt % CuCl$_2$ possess the highest power density of 403.3 mW cm$^{-2}$ at 60 °C and a life span of over 200 h. The high-performance and durability come from the unique structure of Cu(OH)$_2$ nanoclusters-PVA complex. ‘Vehicle’ theory is considered to be the dominant mechanism for enhancing such nanocomposite Cu-AEMs. This work demonstrates a new concept for preparing the stable AEMs toward high-performance fuel cells. The synthetic chemistry involved can be broadly extended for fabricating versatile AEMs.
25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
Hydrogen Safety Outreach to Expedite H2 Fueling and Energy Project Deployment and Promote Public Acceptance for Zero Emission Vehicles and Reliable Distributed Power Generation (Final Report)
This is the final CRADA 396 report to the DOE Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technologies Office.
08 HYDROGEN↗
Development and validation of purged thermal protection systems for liquid hydrogen fuel tanks of hypersonic vehicles
An economical, lightweight, safe, efficient, reliable, and reusable insulation system was developed for hypersonic cruise vehicle hydrogen fuel tanks. Results indicate that, a nitrogen purged, layered insulation system with nonpermeable closed-cell insulation next to the cryogenic tank and a high service temperature fibrous insulation surrounding it, is potentially an attractive solution to the insulation problem. For the postulated hypersonic flight the average unit weight of the purged insulation system (including insulation, condensate and fuel boil off) is 6.31 kg/sq m (1.29 psf). Limited cyclic tests of large specimens of closed cell polymethacrylimide foam indicate it will withstand the expected thermal cycle.
Helenbrook, R. D.↗
Integrity of Ceramic Parts Predicted When Loads and Temperatures Fluctuate Over Time
Brittle materials are being used, and being considered for use, for a wide variety of high performance applications that operate in harsh environments, including static and rotating turbine parts for unmanned aerial vehicles, auxiliary power units, and distributed power generation. Other applications include thermal protection systems, dental prosthetics, fuel cells, oxygen transport membranes, radomes, and microelectromechanical systems (MEMS). In order for these high-technology ceramics to be used successfully for structural applications that push the envelope of materials capabilities, design engineers must consider that brittle materials are designed and analyzed differently than metallic materials. Unlike ductile metals, brittle materials display a stochastic strength response because of the combination of low fracture toughness and the random nature of the size, orientation, and distribution of inherent microscopic flaws. This plus the fact that the strength of a component under load may degrade over time because of slow crack growth means that a probabilistic-based life-prediction methodology must be used when the tradeoffs of failure probability, performance, and useful life are being optimized. The CARES/Life code (which was developed at the NASA Glenn Research Center) predicts the probability of ceramic components failing from spontaneous catastrophic rupture when these components are subjected to multiaxial loading and slow crack growth conditions. Enhancements to CARES/Life now allow for the component survival probability to be calculated when loading and temperature vary over time.
Nemeth, Noel N.↗
Mechanically Strong, Lightweight Porous Materials Developed (X-Aerogels)
Aerogels are attractive materials for a variety of NASA missions because they are ultralightweight, have low thermal conductivity and low-dielectric constants, and can be readily doped with other materials. Potential NASA applications for these materials include lightweight insulation for spacecraft, habitats, and extravehicular activity (EVA) suits; catalyst supports for fuel cell and in situ resource utilization; and sensors for air- and water-quality monitoring for vehicles, habitats, and EVA suits. Conventional aerogels are extremely fragile and require processing via supercritical fluid extraction, which adds cost to the production of an aerogel and limits the sizes and geometries of samples that can be produced from these materials. These issues have severely hampered the application of aerogels in NASA missions.
Leventis, Nicholas↗
Lunar RFC Reliability Testing for Assured Mission Success
NASA's Constellation program has selected the closed cycle hydrogen oxygen Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) regenerative Fuel Cell (RFC) as its baseline solar energy storage system for the lunar outpost and manned rover vehicles. Since the outpost and manned rovers are "human-rated", these energy storage systems will have to be of proven reliability exceeding 99 percent over the length of the mission. Because of the low (TRL=5) development state of the closed cycle hydrogen oxygen PEM RFC at present, and because there is no equivalent technology base in the commercial sector from which to draw or infer reliability information from, NASA will have to spend significant resources developing this technology from TRL 5 to TRL 9, and will have to embark upon an ambitious reliability development program to make this technology ready for a manned mission. Because NASA would be the first user of this new technology, NASA will likely have to bear all the costs associated with its development. When well-known reliability estimation techniques are applied to the hydrogen oxygen RFC to determine the amount of testing that will be required to assure RFC unit reliability over life of the mission, the analysis indicates the reliability testing phase by itself will take at least 2 yr, and could take up to 6 yr depending on the number of QA units that are built and tested and the individual unit reliability that is desired. The cost and schedule impacts of reliability development need to be considered in NASA's Exploration Technology Development Program (ETDP) plans, since life cycle testing to build meaningful reliability data is the only way to assure "return to the moon, this time to stay, then on to Mars" mission success.
Bents, David J.↗